Treatment of cardiovascular disease and dyslipidemia using secretory phospholipase a2 (spla2) inhibitors and spla2 inhibitor combination therapies

ABSTRACT

Administration of sPLA 2  inhibitors has been found to decrease cholesterol levels, atherosclerotic plaque formation and aortic aneurysm in mice, and to decrease cholesterol and triglyceride levels in humans. Interestingly, administration of sPLA 2  inhibitors was found to decrease cholesterol levels even when the inhibitors were administered only once per day. Therefore, provided herein are methods of treating dyslipidemia, CVD, and conditions associated with CVD such as atherosclerosis and metabolic syndrome, by administering one or more sPLA 2  inhibitors. Significantly, administration of sPLA 2  inhibitors and various compounds used in the treatment of CVD, such as for example statins, resulted in greater decreases in LDL and LDL particle levels in a synergistic manner. In addition, administration of sPLA 2  inhibitors and statins resulted in a synergistic decrease in plaque content. Therefore, also provided herein are compositions comprising one or more sPLA 2  inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD, such as for example statins, and methods of using these compositions to treat dyslipidemia, CVD, and conditions associated with CVD such as atherosclerosis and metabolic syndrome.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The subject application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/874,869, filed Oct. 18, 2007, and claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/969,591, filed Aug. 31, 2007, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/915,910, filed May 3, 2007. The disclosures of each of these applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety, including drawings.

BACKGROUND

In 2004, it was estimated that over 75 million Americans had one or more forms of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Coronary heart disease (CHD) and coronary artery disease (CAD) are the most common types of CVD. CHD and CAD occur when coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart become hardened and narrowed due to atherosclerosis. A variety of therapeutic options are currently employed in the treatment of CVD and conditions associated with CVD. Many of these therapeutic options function by lowering cholesterol levels, particularly LDL levels. Among the most popular and effective of these therapeutic options are statins, a class of compounds that inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis and prevent the build-up of arterial plaque. Statin administration has been shown to lower LDL and triglyceride levels and to substantially reduce coronary events and death from CVD. However, statin therapy alone is insufficient to completely treat CVD. Therefore, there is a need in the art for more effective methods of treating CVD and conditions associated with CVD.

SUMMARY

In certain embodiments, methods are provided for treating dyslipidemia in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered in a composition that further comprises one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors results in a decrease in cholesterol and/or triglyceride levels. In certain of these embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors results in a decrease in total cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol, LDL, LDL particle, small LDL particle, oxidized LDL, and/or ApoB levels. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors results in an increase in HDL levels and/or LDL particle size. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors results in a decrease in levels of one or more inflammatory markers. In certain of these embodiments, the inflammatory markers may include, but are not limited to, sPLA₂, CRP, and/or IL-6. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors results in an improvement in HDL/LDL ratio. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject twice or more per day, and in certain of these embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered twice per day. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject on a once a day basis. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered at a dosage of about 50 to about 500 mg.

In certain embodiments, methods are provided for decreasing cholesterol levels in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered in a composition that further comprises one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors results in a decrease in total cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol, LDL, LDL particle, small LDL particle, oxidized LDL, and/or ApoB levels. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors results in an improvement in HDL/LDL ratio. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject twice or more per day, and in certain of these embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered twice per day. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject on a once a day basis. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered at a dosage of about 50 to about 500 mg.

In certain embodiments, methods are provided for decreasing triglyceride levels in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered in a composition that further comprises one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject twice or more per day, and in certain of these embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered twice per day. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject on a once a day basis. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered at a dosage of about 50 to about 500 mg.

In certain embodiments, methods are provided for increasing HDL levels in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered in a composition that further comprises one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors results in an improvement in HDL/LDL ratio. In certain embodiments, improvement in HDL/LDL ratio is further accomplished by a reduction in LDL levels. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject twice or more per day, and in certain of these embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered twice per day. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject on a once a day basis. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered at a dosage of about 50 to about 500 mg.

In certain embodiments, methods are provided for treating CVD or a condition associated with CVD in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered in a composition that further comprises one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject twice or more per day, and in certain of these embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered twice per day. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject on a once a day basis. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered at a dosage of about 50 to about 500 mg. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors results in a decrease in levels of one or more inflammatory markers. In certain of these embodiments, the inflammatory markers may include, but are not limited to, sPLA₂, CRP, and/or IL-6. In certain embodiments, CVD or a condition associated with CVD includes, but is not limited to, atherosclerosis, metabolic syndrome, coronary artery disease, coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, and/or conditions associated with coronary artery disease, coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, or peripheral vascular disease.

In certain embodiments, methods are provided for treating metabolic syndrome in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered in a composition that further comprises one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject twice or more per day, and in certain of these embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered twice per day. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject on a once a day basis. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered at a dosage of about 50 to about 500 mg. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors results in a decrease in levels of one or more inflammatory markers. In certain of these embodiments, the inflammatory markers may include, but are not limited to, sPLA₂, CRP, and/or IL-6.

In certain embodiments, compositions are provided comprising one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD. In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more statins or statin combination drugs. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more statins are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, pitavastatin, and various salts, solvates, stereoisomers, and prodrug derivatives thereof. In certain of these embodiments, the statin combination drugs are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more non-statin compounds selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics.

In certain embodiments, methods are provided for treating dyslipidemia in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and a therapeutically effective amount of one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more statins or statin combination drugs. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more statins are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, pitavastatin, and various salts, solvates, stereoisomers, and prodrug derivatives thereof. In certain of these embodiments, the statin combination drugs are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more non-statin compounds selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD results in a decrease in cholesterol levels and/or triglyceride levels. In certain of these embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD results in a decrease in total cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol, LDL, LDL particle, small LDL particle, oxidized LDL, and/or ApoB levels. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD results in an increase in HDL levels and/or LDL particle size. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD results in an improvement in HDL/LDL ratio. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered simultaneously. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered in a single formulation, while in other embodiments the compounds may be administered simultaneously in two or more formulations. In each of these embodiments, the formulation(s) may further comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered sequentially. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject twice or more per day, and in certain of these embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered twice per day. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject on a once a day basis. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered at a dosage of about 50 to about 500 mg. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD results in a decrease in levels of one or more inflammatory markers. In certain of these embodiments, the inflammatory markers may include, but are not limited to, sPLA₂, CRP, and/or IL-6.

In certain embodiments, methods are provided for decreasing cholesterol levels in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and a therapeutically effective amount of one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more statins or statin combination drugs. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more statins are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, pitavastatin, and various salts, solvates, stereoisomers, and prodrug derivatives thereof. In certain of these embodiments, the statin combination drugs are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more non-statin compounds selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD results in a decrease in total cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol, LDL, LDL particle, small LDL particle levels, oxidized LDL, and/or ApoB levels. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD results in an increase in LDL particle size. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD results in an improvement in HDL/LDL ratio. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered simultaneously. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered in a single formulation, while in other embodiments the compounds may be administered simultaneously in two or more formulations. In each of these embodiments, the formulation(s) may further comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered sequentially. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject twice or more per day, and in certain of these embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered twice per day. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject on a once a day basis. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered at a dosage of about 50 to about 500 mg.

In certain embodiments, methods are provided for decreasing triglyceride levels in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and a therapeutically effective amount of one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more statins or statin combination drugs. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more statins are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, pitavastatin, and various salts, solvates, stereoisomers, and prodrug derivatives thereof. In certain of these embodiments, the statin combination drugs are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more non-statin compounds selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered simultaneously. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered in a single formulation, while in other embodiments the compounds may be administered simultaneously in two or more formulations. In each of these embodiments, the formulation(s) may further comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered sequentially. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject twice or more per day, and in certain of these embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered twice per day. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject on a once a day basis. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered at a dosage of about 50 to about 500 mg.

In certain embodiments, methods are provided for increasing HDL levels in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and a therapeutically effective amount of one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more statins or statin combination drugs. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more statins are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, pitavastatin, and various salts, solvates, stereoisomers, and prodrug derivatives thereof. In certain of these embodiments, the statin combination drugs are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more non-statin compounds selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD results in an improvement in HDL/LDL ratio. In certain embodiments, improvement in HDL/LDL ratio is further accomplished by a reduction in LDL levels. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered simultaneously. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered in a single formulation, while in other embodiments the compounds may be administered simultaneously in two or more formulations. In each of these embodiments, the formulation(s) may further comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered sequentially. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject twice or more per day, and in certain of these embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered twice per day. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject on a once a day basis. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered at a dosage of about 50 to about 500 mg.

In certain embodiments, methods are provided for treating CVD or a condition associated with CVD in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more statins or statin combination drugs. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more statins are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, pitavastatin, and various salts, solvates, stereoisomers, and prodrug derivatives thereof. In certain of these embodiments, the statin combination drugs are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more non-statin compounds selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors results in a decrease in levels of one or more inflammatory markers. In certain of these embodiments, the inflammatory markers may include, but are not limited to, sPLA₂, CRP, and/or IL-6. In certain embodiments, CVD or a condition associated with CVD includes, but is not limited to, atherosclerosis, metabolic syndrome, coronary artery disease, coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, and/or conditions associated with coronary artery disease, coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, or peripheral vascular disease. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered simultaneously. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered in a single formulation, while in other embodiments the compounds may be administered simultaneously in two or more formulations. In each of these embodiments, the formulation(s) may further comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered sequentially. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject twice or more per day, and in certain of these embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered twice per day. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject on a once a day basis. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered at a dosage of about 50 to about 500 mg.

In certain embodiments, methods are provided for treating metabolic syndrome in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more statins or statin combination drugs. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more statins are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, pitavastatin, and various salts, solvates, stereoisomers, and prodrug derivatives thereof. In certain of these embodiments, the statin combination drugs are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more non-statin compounds selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors results in a decrease in levels of one or more inflammatory markers. In certain of these embodiments, the inflammatory markers may include, but are not limited to, sPLA₂, CRP, and/or IL-6. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered simultaneously. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered in a single formulation, while in other embodiments the compounds may be administered simultaneously in two or more formulations. In each of these embodiments, the formulation(s) may further comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered sequentially. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject twice or more per day, and in certain of these embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered twice per day. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject on a once a day basis. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered at a dosage of about 50 to about 500 mg.

In certain embodiments, methods are provided for increasing the effectiveness of a compound used in the treatment of CVD in a subject by administering one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors to said subject. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, the compound used in the treatment of CVD may be a statin or statin combination drug. In certain of these embodiments, the statin may be selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, pitavastatin, and various salts, solvates, stereoisomers, and prodrug derivatives thereof. In certain of these embodiments, the statin combination drug may be selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the compound used in the treatment of CVD may be a non-statin compound selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered simultaneously with the compound used in the treatment of CVD. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the compound used in the treatment of CVD may be administered in a single formulation, while in other embodiments the compounds may be administered simultaneously in two or more formulations. In each of these embodiments, the formulation(s) may further comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the compound used in the treatment of CVD may be administered sequentially. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject twice or more per day, and in certain of these embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors are administered twice per day. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered to the subject on a once a day basis. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered at a dosage of about 50 to about 500 mg.

In certain embodiments, the use of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors for preparation of a medicament for treating dyslipidemia, treating CVD and conditions associated with CVD, lowering cholesterol levels, lowering triglyceride levels, increasing HDL levels, and improving HDL/LDL ratios in a subject is provided. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, the medicament further comprises one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers.

In certain embodiments, the use of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD for preparation of a medicament for treating dyslipidemia, treating CVD and conditions associated with CVD, lowering cholesterol levels, lowering triglyceride levels, increasing HDL levels, and/or improving HDL/LDL ratios in a subject is provided. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-002, a prodrug of A-001. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more statins or statin combination drugs. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more statins are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, pitavastatin, and various salts, solvates, stereoisomers, and prodrug derivatives thereof. In certain of these embodiments, the statin combination drugs are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more non-statin compounds selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics. In certain embodiments, the medicament further comprises one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers.

In addition to the exemplary embodiments described above, further embodiments and aspects will become apparent by reference to the drawings and by study of the following descriptions.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1: Effect of A-002 administration on body weight in mice. ApoE^(−/−) mice were administered vehicle only, 30 mg/kg A-002, or 90 mg/kg A-002 twice daily over 16 weeks. Body weight was measured once a week.

FIG. 2: Effect of A-002 administration on plasma total cholesterol levels in mice. ApoE^(−/−) mice were administered vehicle only, 30 mg/kg A-002, or 90 mg/kg A-002 twice daily over 16 weeks. Total plasma cholesterol levels were measured at 0, 4, 8, 12, and 16 weeks.

FIG. 3: Effect of A-002 administration on atherosclerotic plaque coverage in mice. ApoE^(−/−) mice were administered vehicle only, 30 mg/kg A-002, or 90 mg/kg A-002 twice daily over 16 weeks. At 16 weeks, aortic plaque coverage was measured.

FIG. 4: Effect of A-002 administration on angiotensin II-mediated atherosclerotic plaque formation and aortic aneurysm. ApoE^(−/−) mice were administered saline plus water, angiotensin II in water vehicle, angiotensin II in acacia vehicle, or angiotensin II in acacia vehicle plus 30 mg/kg A-002. At 4 weeks, aortic plaque coverage was measured.

FIG. 5: En face lesions in A-002 and/or statin dosage groups. ApoE^(−/−) mice on a high fat diet were administered various dosages of A-002, statin, or A-002 plus statin over twelve weeks, and en face lesion content was measured using digital imaging methods. Lesion size is expressed as percent coverage over entire tissue sample. A: low dose A-002; B: high dose A-002; C: statin; D: low dose A-002 plus statin; E: high dose A-002 plus statin; and F: vehicle only.

FIG. 6: Total plasma cholesterol levels in A-002 and/or statin dosage groups. ApoE^(−/−) mice on a high fat diet were administered various dosages of A-002, statin, or A-002 plus statin over twelve weeks, and total cholesterol levels were measured. A: low dose A-002; B: high dose A-002; C: statin; D: low dose A-002 plus statin; E: high dose A-002 plus statin; and F: vehicle only.

FIG. 7: HDL levels in A-002 and/or statin dosage groups. ApoE^(−/−) mice on a high fat diet were administered various dosages of A-002, statin, or A-002 plus statin over twelve weeks, and HDL levels were measured. A: low dose A-002; B: high dose A-002; C: statin; D: low dose A-002 plus statin; E: high dose A-002 plus statin; and F: vehicle only.

FIG. 8: A-002/simvastatin combination tablet preparation protocol.

FIG. 9: HPLC profiles. A. Simvastatin. B. A-002. C. A-002/simvastatin combination tablet #19. D. A-002/simvastatin combination tablet #27.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following description of the invention is merely intended to illustrate various embodiments of the invention. As such, the specific modifications discussed are not to be construed as limitations on the scope of the invention. It will be apparent to one skilled in the art that various equivalents, changes, and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the invention, and it is understood that such equivalent embodiments are to be included herein.

Abbreviations

AA, arachidonic acid; ACE, angiotensin converting enzyme; Ang, angiotensin; ApoB, apolipoprotein B; ARB, Angiotensin Receptor Blocker; BID, twice daily; BMI, body mass index; CAD, coronary artery disease; CETP, cholesteryl ester transfer protein; cfm, cubic feet per minute; CHD, coronary heart disease; CRP, C-reactive protein; CVD, cardiovascular disease; ECG, electrocardiogram; ERN, extended release niacin; HDL, high density lipoprotein; HMG-CoA, hydroxymethyl glutaryl coenzyme A; HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography; ICAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule 1; IDL, intermediate density lipoprotein; IL, interleukin (e.g., IL-6, IL-8); ITT, intent to treat; LDL, low density lipoprotein; LPA, lysophosphatidic acid; MCP-1, monocyte chemotactic protein-1; MI, myocardial infarction; MIP-1α, macrophage inflammatory protein 1 alpha; MTP, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein; PAD, peripheral artery disease; PAF, platelet activating factor; PLA2, phospholipase A₂; QD, once daily; sPLA₂, secretory phospholipase A₂; TEAE, treatment-emergent adverse event; TG, triglyceride; TIA, transient ischemic attack; TNFα, tumor necrosis factor alpha; VCAM-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule 1; VLDL, very low density lipoprotein.

The terms “treat,” “treating,” or “treatment” as used herein with regards to a condition refers to preventing the condition, slowing the onset or rate of development of the condition, reducing the risk of developing the condition, preventing or delaying the development of symptoms associated with the condition, reducing or ending symptoms associated with the condition, generating a complete or partial regression of the condition, or some combination thereof. For example, with regard to atherosclerosis, “treatment” may refer to a decrease in the likelihood of developing atherosclerotic plaque deposits, a decrease in the rate of development of deposits, a decrease in the number or size of existing deposits, or improved plaque stability. Likewise, “treatment” with regard to dyslipidemia may refer to a decrease in lipid levels, cholesterol levels, and/or triglyceride (TG) levels.

The term “subject” as used herein refers to any mammal, preferably a human.

In certain embodiments, a “subject in need thereof” refers to a subject diagnosed with CVD or exhibiting one or more conditions associated with CVD, a subject who has been diagnosed with or exhibited one or more conditions associated with CVD in the past, or a subject who has been deemed at risk of developing CVD or one or more conditions associated with CVD in the future due to hereditary or environmental factors. “Cardiovascular disease” or “CVD” as used herein includes, for example, atherosclerosis, including coronary artery atherosclerosis and carotid artery atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease (CAD), coronary heart disease (CHD), conditions associated with CAD and CHD, cerebrovascular disease and conditions associated with cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease and conditions associated with peripheral vascular disease, aneurysm, vasculitis, venous thrombosis, diabetes mellitus, and metabolic syndrome. “Conditions associated with CAD and CHD” as used herein include, for example, angina and myocardial infarction (MI; heart attack). “Conditions associated with cerebrovascular disease” as used herein include, for example, transient ischemic attack (TIA) and stroke. “Conditions associated with peripheral vascular disease” as used herein include, for example, claudication. “Conditions associated with CVD” as used herein include, for example, dyslipidemia, such as for example hyperlipidemia (elevated lipid levels), hypercholesterolemia (elevated cholesterol levels), and hypertriglyceridemia (elevated TG levels), elevated glucose levels, low HDL/LDL ratio, and hypertension. Therefore, in certain embodiments, a subject in need thereof may be a subject exhibiting dyslipidemia or a subject that has exhibited dyslipidemia in the past or has been deemed at risk for developing dyslipidemia in the future. In certain of these embodiments, the subject may exhibit elevated cholesterol levels, or may have exhibited elevated cholesterol levels in the past or been deemed at risk for developing elevated cholesterol levels in the future. Likewise, in certain of these embodiments, the subject may exhibit elevated triglyceride levels, or may have exhibited elevated triglyceride levels in the past or been deemed at risk for developing elevated triglyceride levels in the future. In certain embodiments, a subject in need thereof may have a condition associated with inflammation, may have been diagnosed with such a condition in the past, or may have been deemed at risk for developing such a condition in the future. In addition to atherosclerosis and certain other forms of CVD, conditions associated with inflammation include, for example, multiple sclerosis (Cunningham 2006), Alzheimer's disease (Moses 2006), sickle cell (Styles 1996), rheumatoid arthritis, and osteoarthritis (Jamal 1998). In these embodiments, a subject in need thereof may exhibit elevated sPLA₂ levels, may have exhibited elevated sPLA₂ levels in the past, or may have been deemed at risk for developing elevated sPLA₂ levels. In other embodiments, a subject in need thereof may exhibit sPLA₂ levels falling within a normal range. In certain embodiments, a subject in need thereof may exhibit elevated levels of one or more additional markers associated with inflammation, including but not limited to CRP, IL-6, MCP-1, TNFα, IL-8, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and MIP-1α.

The term “cholesterol level” as used herein refers to blood cholesterol level, serum cholesterol level, plasma cholesterol level, or cholesterol level from another biological fluid. A decrease in cholesterol levels as used herein may refer to a decrease in total cholesterol levels or a decrease in one or more of total cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol, LDL, VLDL, and/or IDL levels. A decrease in LDL as used herein may refer to a decrease in total LDL, a decrease in LDL particles, a decrease in small LDL particles, a decrease in oxidized LDL levels, and/or a decrease in ApoB levels. A decrease in VLDL as used herein may refer to a decrease in total VLDL or to a decrease in the level of one or more of VLDL subparticles V1 to V6. An improvement in HDL/LDL ratio as used herein refers to any increase in the ratio of HDL to LDL, and may be accomplished by decreasing LDL levels, increasing HDL levels, or some combination thereof. An increase in LDL particle size as used herein refers to an increase in mean particle size.

The term “elevated cholesterol level” as used herein refers to a cholesterol level that is above an accepted normal threshold level, such as those promulgated by the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI) National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP). The accepted normal threshold cholesterol level may vary from subject to subject based on various risk factors, such as for example a prior history of CVD. In certain embodiments, a subject exhibiting elevated cholesterol levels may have a blood LDL level greater than or equal to 70 mg/dl. In certain of these embodiments, a subject exhibiting elevated cholesterol levels may have a blood LDL greater than or equal to 100 mg/dl, in other embodiments greater than or equal to 130 mg/dl, in other embodiments greater than or equal to 160 mg/dl, and in still other embodiments greater than or equal to 190 mg/dl. In certain embodiments, a subject exhibiting elevated cholesterol levels may have a blood total cholesterol level greater than or equal to 200 mg/dl. In certain of these embodiments, a subject exhibiting elevated cholesterol levels may have a blood total cholesterol greater than or equal to 240 mg/dl.

The term “triglyceride level” as used herein refers to blood triglyceride level, serum triglyceride level, plasma triglyceride level, or triglyceride level from another biological fluid. The term “elevated triglyceride level” as used herein refers to a triglyceride level that is above an accepted normal threshold level. The accepted normal threshold triglyceride level may vary from subject to subject based on various risk factors, such as for example a prior history of CVD. In certain embodiments, a subject exhibiting elevated triglyceride levels may have a blood triglyceride level greater than or equal to 150 mg/dl. In certain of these embodiments, a subject exhibiting elevated triglyceride levels may have a blood triglyceride level greater than or equal to 200 mg/dl, in other embodiments greater than or equal to 300 mg/dl, in other embodiments greater than or equal to 400 mg/dl, and in still other embodiments greater than or equal to 500 mg/dl.

The term “statin” as used herein refers to any compound that inhibits HMG-CoA reductase, an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of HMG-CoA to mevalonate.

The term “sPLA₂ inhibitor” as used herein refers to any compound or prodrug thereof that inhibits the activity of sPLA₂.

A “therapeutically effective amount” of a composition as used herein is an amount of a composition that produces a desired therapeutic effect in a subject, such as treating a target condition. The precise therapeutically effective amount is an amount of the composition that will yield the most effective results in terms of therapeutic efficacy in a given subject. This amount will vary depending upon a variety of factors, including but not limited to the characteristics of the therapeutic composition (including, e.g., activity, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and bioavailability), the physiological condition of the subject (including, e.g., age, body weight, sex, disease type and stage, medical history, general physical condition, responsiveness to a given dosage, and other present medications), the nature of the pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or carriers in the composition, and the route of administration. One skilled in the clinical and pharmacological arts will be able to determine a therapeutically effective amount through routine experimentation, namely by monitoring a subject's response to administration of a composition and adjusting the dosage accordingly. For additional guidance, see, e.g., Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, 21^(st) Edition, Univ. of Sciences in Philadelphia (USIP), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, Pa., 2005, and Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 11th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 2006, the entire disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein.

A “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” as used herein refers to a pharmaceutically acceptable material, composition, or vehicle that is involved in carrying or transporting a compound of interest from one tissue, organ, or portion of the body to another tissue, organ, or portion of the body. Such a carrier may comprise, for example, a liquid, solid, or semi-solid filler, solvent, surfactant, diluent, excipient, adjuvant, binder, buffer, dissolution aid, solvent, encapsulating material, sequestering agent, dispersing agent, preservative, lubricant, disintegrant, thickener, emulsifier, antimicrobial agent, antioxidant, stabilizing agent, coloring agent, or some combination thereof. Each component of the carrier must be “pharmaceutically acceptable” in that it must be compatible with the other ingredients of the composition and must be suitable for contact with any tissue, organ, or portion of the body that it may encounter, meaning that it must not carry a risk of toxicity, irritation, allergic response, immunogenicity, or any other complication that excessively outweighs its therapeutic benefits. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable carriers for use in the presently disclosed pharmaceutical compositions include, but are not limited to, diluents such as microcrystalline cellulose or lactose (e.g., anhydrous lactose, lactose fast flo), binders such as gelatin, polyethylene glycol, wax, microcrystalline cellulose, synthetic gums such as polyvinylpyrrolidone, or cellulosic polymers such as hydroxypropyl cellulose (e.g., hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC)), lubricants such as magnesium stearate, calcium stearate, stearic acid, or microcrystalline cellulose, disintegrants such as starches, cross-linked polymers, or celluloses (e.g., croscarmellose sodium (CCNa), fillers such as silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide, microcrystalline cellulose, or powdered cellulose, surfactants or emulsifiers such as polysorbates (e.g., Polysorbate 20, 40, 60, or 80; Span 20, 40, 60, 65, or 80), antioxidant agents such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), propyl gallate, or ascorbic acid (either free acid or salt forms thereof), buffers such as phosphate or citrate buffers, sequestering agents such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid (EGTA), or edetate disodium, dispersing agents such as sodium carboxymethylcelluose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, povidone, or polyvinylpyrrolidone, dissolution aids such as calcium carbonate, and excipients such as water, saline, dextrose, glycerol, or ethanol, citric acid, calcium metabisulfite, lactic acid, malic acid, succinic acid, or tartaric acid.

Metabolic syndrome is a disorder characterized by a group of metabolic risk factors. These factors include, for example, dyslipidemia, abdominal obesity, elevated blood pressure (hypertension), insulin resistance or glucose intolerance, prothrombotic state, and proinflammatory state. Subjects are generally classified as having metabolic syndrome if they meet three of the five following criteria: 1) abdominal obesity (waist circumference >35 inches in women, >40 inches in men); 2) low HDL levels (<50 mg/dL in women, <40 mg/dL in men); 3) high blood pressure (≧130/85 mm Hg) or current treatment with antihypertensive medication; 4) hypertriglyceridemia (TG levels ≧150 mg/dL); and 5) impaired fasting glucose (blood glucose levels of ≧110 mg/dL). Metabolic syndrome is associated with elevated levels of various inflammatory markers, such as CRP or IL-6. Subjects with metabolic syndrome are at increased risk of developing CAD, CHD, conditions associated with CAD and CHD, and type 2 diabetes.

Over time, hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceridemia can lead to the development of atheromatous plaques on the inner arterial linings via the process of atherogenesis, which in turn results in atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis leads to significantly reduced blood flow through the arteries, which in turn leads to the development of CAD, CHD, and conditions associated with CAD and CHD.

Reduction of cholesterol levels, particularly LDL levels, and/or reduction of TG levels have been shown to delay the onset and decrease the progression of atherosclerosis, thereby reducing the risk of developing CAD and CHD. In certain cases, adequate cholesterol and/or TG reduction may be accomplished through diet adjustment. In other cases, however, adequate reduction requires the administration of one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD. Compounds used in the treatment of CVD include compounds for lowering cholesterol levels and/or increasing HDL levels, such as for example statins, bile acid sequestrants such as cholestyramine resin (Questran®, Prevalite®), colestipol hydrochloride (Colestid®), or colesevelam hydrochloride (WelChol®, Cholestagel®), fibrates such as bezafibrate (Bezalip®), ciprofibrate (Modalim®), clofibrate, gemfibrozil (Lopid®), or fenofibrate (Antara®, TriCor®, ABT-335), niacin or niacin derivatives such as xanthinol niacinate, niacin immediate-release (Niacor®), extended release forms of niacin (ERN) (Niaspan®, Niaspan MF, or Niaspan CF), or extended release niacin combinations (e.g., extended release niacin plus the DP-1 antagonist laropiprant (MK-0524), combination known as MK-0524A and marketed as Cordaptive®), cholesterol absorption inhibitors such as ezetimibe (Zetia®), AVE 5530, or MD-0727, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors such as JTT-705/RO4607381 (R1658), CP-529414 (Torcetrapib®), or MK-0859, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors such as AEGR-733 and AEGR-733 combinations (e.g., AEGR-733 plus ezetimibe), squalene synthase inhibitors such as lapaquistat acetate (TAK-475) and lapaquistat acetate combinations (e.g., TAK-475 plus one or more statins), and other miscellaneous compounds such as dextrothyroxine, ISIS 301012, cardioprotectants such as MC-1 antibody, glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors such as tirofiban hydrochloride (Aggrastat®), TG100-115, AEGR 773, AEGR 427, stanols, or sterols. In addition to compounds that lower cholesterol levels or increase HDL levels, compounds used in the treatment of CVD include, for example, ACE inhibitors such as lisinopril, captopril, enalapril, nitrosated ACE inhibitors, or ACE inhibitor combinations (e.g., lisinopril plus MC-1 antibody, combination referred to as MC-4232), angiotensin II receptor antagonists, nitrosated angiotensin II receptor antagonists, or angiotensin II receptor antagonist combinations (e.g., Angiotensin Receptor Blocker (ARB) plus MC-1, combination referred to as MC-4262), beta-adrenergic blockers or nitrosated beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, or antithrombotics such as aspirin or nitrosated aspirin.

Among the most well-known and commonly used compounds used in the treatment of CVD are statins. Statins are compounds that inhibit HMG-CoA reductase from catalyzing the conversion of HMG-CoA to mevalonate, a rate-limiting step in the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway. As such, statins function as potent lipid lowering agent. Statin administration significantly decreases blood LDL levels, and moderately decreases blood TG levels. In addition, it has been proposed that statins may prevent CVD by improving endothelial function, modulating inflammatory responses, maintaining plaque stability, and preventing thrombus formation. Examples of statins that may be used in conjunction with the compositions and methods disclosed herein include, but are not limited to, atorvastatin or atorvastatin calcium (marketed as Lipitor® or Torvast®; see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,681,893 or 5,273,995) and atorvastatin combinations (e.g., atorvastatin plus amlodipine (marketed as Norvasc®), combination marketed as Caduet®, see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,455,574; atorvastatin plus CP-529414 (marketed as Torcetrapib®); atorvastatin plus APA-01; atorvastatin plus ezetimibe), cerivastatin (marketed as Lipobay® or Baycol®), fluvastatin (marketed as Lescol®; U.S. Pat. No. 4,739,073), lovastatin (marketed as Mevacor® or Altocor®; see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,231,938), lovastatin combinations (e.g., lovastatin plus Niaspan®, combination marketed as Advicor®), mevastatin, pitavastatin (marketed as Livalo® or Pitava®), pravastatin (marketed as Pravachol®, Mevalotin®, Selektine®, or Lipostat®; see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,346,227), pravastatin combinations (e.g., pravastatin plus fenofibrate), rosuvastatin (marketed as Crestor®), rosuvastatin combinations (e.g., rosuvastatin plus TriCor®), simvastatin (marketed as Zocor® or Lipex®; see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,444,784; 4,916,239; and 4,820,850), and simvastatin combinations (e.g., simvastatin plus ezetimibe, combination marketed as Vytorin®, see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,229,982; simvastatin plus Niaspan®, combination marketed as Simcor®; simvastatin plus MK-0524A, combination referred to as MK-0524B), as well as various pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, salts, stereoisomers, prodrugs derivatives, or nitroderivatives of the compounds listed above. In some cases, such as for example with simvastatin, the active form of the statin is a metabolite formed in the body of a subject following administration. In other cases, statins are administered in their active form.

Phospholipases A₂ (PLA₂s) are a family of enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis of the sn-2 fatty acyl ester bond of phospholipids to produce free fatty acids and lysophospholipids such as arachidonic acid (AA) and lysophosphatidylcholine. AA can then be converted into eicosanoids such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, thromboxanes, and lipoxins, while lysophosphatidylcholine can be metabolized to lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) or platelet-activating factor (PAF). PLA₂s have been classified into several groups based on factors such as cellular localization, amino acid sequence, molecular mass, and calcium requirement for enzymatic activity (Ramoner 2005).

Secretory phospholipase A₂ (sPLA₂) is an extracellular or secreted subgroup of PLA₂ that plays a role in inducing inflammation. Elevated levels of sPLA₂ types IIA, IID, IIE, IIF, III, V, and X have been observed in all stages of atherosclerosis development and have been implicated in atherogenesis based on their ability to degrade phospholipid (Kimura-Matsumoto 2007). sPLA₂ type IIA has been found to be expressed at vascular smooth muscle cells and foam cells in human arteriosclerosis lesions, and this expression has been recognized to have a correlation with the development of arteriosclerosis (Menschikowski 1995; Elinder 1997). Transgenic mice that express high levels of human type IIA sPLA₂ have increased LDL levels, decreased HDL levels, and arteriosclerotic lesions (Ivandic 1999; Tietge 2000), and develop arteriosclerosis at a higher rate compared to normal mice when given a high fat diet (Ivandic 1999). Treatment with sPLA₂ modifies LDL lipoproteins such that they have higher affinity for extracellular matrix proteins (Camejo 1998; Sartipy 1999; Hakala 2001), resulting in an increased retention of LDL particles in the arterial wall. In addition, there is some evidence that sPLA₂ remodels HDL, resulting in HDL catabolism (Pruzanski 1998). Increased expression of sPLA₂ type V has been shown to increase arteriosclerosis in mice, while a deficiency of sPLA₂ type V has been shown to reduce arteriosclerosis (Rosengren 2006; Bostrom 2007).

sPLA₂ expression has also been correlated with an increased risk of development of CAD. Higher circulating levels of sPLA₂, and of sPLA₂ type IIA specifically, have been observed in patients with documented CAD than in control patients (Kugiyama 1999; Liu 2003; Boekholdt 2005; Chait 2005; Hartford 2006). In addition, higher circulating levels of sPLA₂ were found to provide an accurate prognostic indicator for development of CAD in healthy individuals (Mallat 2007). Measurement of sPLA₂ activity has been shown to be an independent predictor of death and new or recurrent myocardial infarction in subjects with acute coronary syndrome, and provides greater prognostic accuracy than measuring type IIA concentration only (Mallat 2005). It has also been proposed that sPLA₂ may have detrimental effects in the setting of ischemic events. This is based largely on the finding of sPLA₂ depositions in the necrotic center of infracted human myocardium (Nijmeijer 2002).

As disclosed herein, administration of the sPLA₂ inhibitor A-002, which is a prodrug form of A-001, decreased plasma total cholesterol levels, increased plasma HDL levels, and decreased atherosclerotic plaque formation and aortic aneurysm in mice. In humans with CVD, twice daily administration of A-002 decreased serum LDL, LDL particle, small LDL particle, total cholesterol, and TG levels. Decreases in LDL were observed in a diabetic subpopulation, as well as in a subpopulation exhibiting elevated baseline LDL levels, while decreases in TG levels were observed in a metabolic syndrome subpopulation. Additionally, administration of A-002 was found to decrease serum levels of the inflammatory markers sPLA₂, CRP, and IL-6. Surprisingly, similar results were obtained with once a day administration of A-002, which caused a decrease in LDL, non-HDL cholesterol, total cholesterol, small LDL particle, oxidized LDL, triglyceride, and ApoB levels and an increase in LDL particle size. In addition, once a day dosing with A-002 prevented the large increase in CRP levels observed in the placebo group. Based on the experimental results disclosed herein showing that administration of sPLA₂ inhibitors decreases total cholesterol levels, atherosclerotic plaque formation, and aortic aneurysm in mice, decreases total cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol, LDL, LDL particle, small LDL particle, oxidized LDL particle, TG, and ApoB levels in humans, and increases LDL particle size in humans, administration of a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be used to treat CVD and conditions associated with CVD, such as for example dyslipidemia, atherosclerosis, metabolic syndrome, CAD, CHD, and conditions associated with CAD and CHD.

Provided herein in certain embodiments are methods of treating CVD and conditions associated with CVD in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors. In certain of these embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may result in, among other effects, a decrease in cholesterol levels, a decrease in TG levels, an increase in LDL particle size, and/or an improvement in HDL/LDL ratio. Therefore, also provided herein are methods of treating dyslipidemia in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors for use in these methods comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001. In certain of these embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug is A-002. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may result in a decrease in one or more markers associated with inflammation. Such markers include, but are not limited to, sPLA₂, CRP, and IL-6. Also provided herein are compositions comprising one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors for use in the methods disclosed herein, such as for example in the treatment of CVD, conditions associated with CVD, and/or dyslipidemia or to lower total cholesterol, LDL, non-HDL cholesterol, LDL particle, small LDL particle, oxidized LDL, ApoB, and/or triglyceride levels or to raise HDL levels. In certain embodiments, these compositions further comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers.

Compositions comprising one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors for use in the methods disclosed herein may be administered to a subject on a one-time basis or in multiple administrations. In those embodiments wherein these compositions are given in multiple administrations, the compositions may be administered at set intervals over a particular time period determined in advance, or they may be administered indefinitely or until a particular therapeutic benchmark is reached, such as for example until a subject exhibits cholesterol levels below a specified threshold. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered from one or more times per day to once every week, once every month, or once every several months. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered twice a day, and in other embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors may be administered once a day. As disclosed herein, both twice a day and once a day administration of A-002 resulted in significant decreases in serum lipid levels.

In certain embodiments, kits are provided that comprise one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001, and in certain of these embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug is A-002. In certain embodiments, the kit provides instructions for usage, such as dosage or administration instructions.

As disclosed herein, twice daily administration of A-002 was shown to further decrease total cholesterol levels in mice and LDL, LDL particle, and small LDL particle levels in humans that were receiving statin treatment. Likewise, A-002 was shown to further decrease serum LDL levels in humans that were receiving ezetimibe treatment. Similar results were obtained when A-002 was administered once a day in combination with statins. These results indicate that administration of an sPLA₂ inhibitor unexpectedly causes an additional decrease in cholesterol levels in subjects that are already being treated with another compound used in the treatment of CVD, such as a statin. As further disclosed herein, administration of A-002 in conjunction with statins resulted in an unexpected synergistic decrease in total cholesterol levels and aortic lesion formation in mice and in LDL and small LDL particle levels in humans. The synergistic decrease in LDL following co-administration of A-002 and statins was observed in the statin subpopulation as a whole. In addition, synergism appeared to occur between A-002 and each of the individual statins within the general statin subpopulation, although statistical analysis of this effect was complicated by the limited number of test and placebo subjects for each statin. These results indicate that the synergistic decrease in LDL levels generated by co-administration of A-002 and statins is not limited to one particular statin, but rather occurs across the entire range of statins. Administration of A-002 in conjunction with ezetimibe led to a similar synergistic decrease in LDL levels, indicating that the synergism between A-002 and compounds used in the treatment of CVD is not limited to statins. Therefore, methods are provided herein for treating CVD and conditions associated with CVD, including dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis, in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and a therapeutically effective amount of one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD, such as for example statins. Also provided herein are methods of increasing the effectiveness of a compound used in the treatment of CVD, such as for example a statin, by administering one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors in conjunction with the compound used in the treatment of CVD.

Provided herein in certain embodiments are methods of treating dyslipidemia in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and a therapeutically effective amount of one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001, and in certain of these embodiments the pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug is A-002. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more statins or statin combination drugs. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more statins are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, and pitavastatin, and the statin combination drugs are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more non-statin compounds selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise ezetimibe. In certain embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more statins results in a decrease in cholesterol levels, and in certain of these embodiments the decrease in cholesterol levels is greater than that observed following administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors or one or more statins alone. In certain of these embodiments, the decrease in cholesterol levels is synergistic, meaning that the decrease is greater than the expected additive effect of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more statins. In certain of these embodiments, administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more statins results in an improved HDL/LDL ratio, either by decreasing LDL levels, increasing HDL levels, or both.

Provided herein in certain embodiments are methods of treating CVD or conditions associated with CVD in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and a therapeutically effective amount of one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001, and in certain of these embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug is A-002. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more statins or statin combination drugs. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more statins are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, and pitavastatin, and the statin combination drugs are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more non-statin compounds selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise ezetimibe. In certain embodiments, treatment of CVD or a condition associated with CVD may be associated with a decrease in cholesterol levels. In other embodiments, however, treatment of certain forms of CVD may not be associated with a concomitant decrease in cholesterol levels. For example, sPLA₂ inhibitor and statin administration may result in a decrease in atherosclerotic plaque formation without a measurable decrease in cholesterol levels via a mechanism such as inhibition of inflammation. In these embodiments, treatment of CVD may be associated with a decrease in levels of one or more inflammatory markers, such as for example sPLA₂, CRP, and/or IL-6. In certain embodiments, administration of a combination of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more statins results in a greater degree of treatment than that observed following administration of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors or statins alone. In certain of these embodiments, the degree of treatment is synergistic, meaning that the degree of treatment is greater than the expected additive effect of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more statins.

Provided herein in certain embodiments are methods for increasing the effectiveness of a compound used in the treatment of CVD by administering one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors in conjunction with the compound used in the treatment of CVD. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001, and in certain of these embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug is A-002. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more statins or statin combination drugs. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more statins are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, and pitavastatin, and the statin combination drugs are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more non-statin compounds selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise ezetimibe. An increase in effectiveness of a compound used in the treatment of CVD as used herein refers to an increase the therapeutic effect of the compound, a decrease in the dosage of the compound required to obtain a particular level of therapeutic effect, or some combination thereof. For example, an increase in effectiveness of a statin as used herein may refer to a greater decrease in LDL levels following administration of a particular dosage of a statin, a decrease in the dosage of statin required to bring about a particular decrease in LDL levels, or some combination thereof.

Likewise, in certain embodiments methods are provided for increasing the effectiveness of an sPLA₂ inhibitor by administering one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001, and in certain of these embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug is A-002. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more statins or statin combination drugs. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more statins are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, and pitavastatin, and the statin combination drugs are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more non-statin compounds selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise ezetimibe.

In certain embodiments, one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD, such as for example one or more statins, may be administered to a subject separately, i.e., as separate compositions. In these embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered simultaneously or sequentially. Further, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be administered at different times, and one compound may be administered more frequently than another. In certain embodiments wherein the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD are statins and wherein the sPLA₂ inhibitors and/or statins are given in multiple administrations, one or both may be administered anywhere from once or more times per day to once every week, once every month, or once every several months. In certain preferred embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and/or statins may be administered twice a day, and in other preferred embodiments the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and/or statins may be administered once a day.

In certain embodiments, kits are provided that comprise one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001, and in certain of these embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug is A-002. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more statins or statin combination drugs. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more statins are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, and pitavastatin, and the statin combination drugs are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more non-statin compounds selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics. Within the kit, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be divided into separate compartments. For example, the kit may comprise multiple bottles or packets, wherein each bottle or packet contains either one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors or one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD. In other embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be found in a single, undivided container. In certain embodiments, the kit provides instructions for usage, such as dosage or administration instructions.

Provided herein in certain embodiments are pharmaceutical compositions comprising a therapeutically effective amount of one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and a therapeutically effective amount of one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD. In certain embodiments, the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors comprise A-001 or a pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, salt, polymorph, co-crystal, or solvate of A-001, and in certain of these embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug is A-002. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more statins or statin combination drugs. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more statins are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, simvastatin, rosuvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, mevastatin, and pitavastatin, and the statin combination drugs are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin plus ezetimibe, atorvastatin plus amlodipine, atorvastatin plus CP-529414, atorvastatin plus APA-01, simvastatin plus ezetimibe, simvastatin plus extended release niacin, simvastatin plus MK-0524A, lovastatin plus extended release niacin, rosuvastatin plus fenofibrate, pravastatin plus fenofibrate, and statin plus TAK-457. In certain embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise one or more non-statin compounds selected from the group consisting of bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, niacin or niacin derivatives, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) inhibitors, squalene synthase inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antithrombotics. In certain of these embodiments, the one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD comprise ezetimibe.

Pharmaceutical compositions comprising one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD, such as for example one or more statins, may be administered to a subject on a one-time basis or in multiple administrations. In those embodiments wherein the compositions are given in multiple administrations, they may be administered at set intervals over a particular time period determined in advance, or they may be administered indefinitely or until a particular therapeutic benchmark is reached, such as for example until a subject exhibits cholesterol levels, triglyceride levels, or inflammatory marker levels that are below a specified threshold. In certain embodiments, the compositions may be administered from once or more times per day to once every month or once every several months. In certain of these embodiments, the compositions are administered once or twice per day.

Pharmaceutical compositions comprising one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors, one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD, or one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors plus one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD as disclosed herein may be delivered to a subject by any administration pathway known in the art, including but not limited to oral, aerosol, enteral, nasal, ophthalmic, parenteral, or transdermal (e.g., topical cream or ointment, patch). “Parenteral” refers to a route of administration that is generally associated with injection, including infraorbital, infusion, intraarterial, intracapsular, intracardiac, intradermal, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intrapulmonary, intraspinal, intrasternal, intrathecal, intrauterine, intravenous, subarachnoid, subcapsular, subcutaneous, transmucosal, or transtracheal. sPLA₂ inhibitor, statin, or combined sPLA₂ inhibitor and statin pharmaceutical compositions as described herein may be administered in any pharmaceutically acceptable form, including for example in the form of a solid, liquid solution, suspension, emulsion, dispersion, micelle, or liposome. Preparations for injection may include sterile solutions ready for injection, sterile dry soluble products, such as lyophilized powders, ready to be combined with a solvent just prior to use, including hypodermic tablets, sterile suspensions ready for injection, sterile dry insoluble products ready to be combined with a vehicle just prior to use, and sterile emulsions. The solutions may be either aqueous or nonaqueous. In certain embodiments, the compositions may comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or may be administered in conjunction with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers.

In certain embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions comprising one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors, one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD, or one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors plus one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD as described herein may be formed into oral dosage units, such as for example tablets, pills, or capsules. Such an oral dosage unit may comprise the active ingredients (e.g., A-002 and one or more statins) and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. As disclosed herein, the feasibility of such an oral dosage unit was demonstrated by producing a batch of tablets comprising A-002 and simvastatin as the active ingredients. Each tablet was formulated with 250 mg of A-002 and 40 mg of simvastatin. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers utilized in formulating the tablets included anhydrous lactose, lactose fast flo, and microcrystalline cellulose as diluents, hydroxypropyl cellulose as a binder, croscarmellose sodium as a disintegrants, butylated hydroxyanisole as an antioxidant, magnesium stearate as a lubricant, and polysorbate 80 as a surfactant. Water was used as a solvent when formulating the tablet. The final tablets contained high concentrations of both active ingredients as determined by HPLC analysis, indicating that an sPLA₂ inhibitor and one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD, such as for example one or more statins, may be formulated into a single oral dosage unit. The specific tablet formulation disclosed herein is provided as an example only. One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the therapeutically acceptable carriers utilized in the formulation may be varied, and that such variations are routine in the art. Likewise, the active ingredients may vary. As disclosed herein, administration of A-002 in combination with a variety of statins causes a synergistic decrease in serum lipid levels. Therefore, in certain embodiments, A-002 may be combined with any statin known in the art, including but not limited to atorvastatin or atorvastatin calcium, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, lovastatin, mevastatin, pitavastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin, and/or simvastatin. In certain embodiments, an oral dosage unit may comprise a coating that surrounds the active ingredients and pharmaceutically acceptable carrier(s).

In certain embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions comprising one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors, one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD, or one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors plus one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD as disclosed herein may be administered via a time release delivery vehicle, such as for example a time release oral dosage unit. A “time release vehicle” as used herein refers to any delivery vehicle that releases active agent (e.g., A-002 and one or more statins) at some time after administration or over a period of time following administration rather than immediately upon administration. Time release may be obtained by a coating on the vehicle that dissolves over a set timeframe following administration. In certain embodiments, the time release vehicle may comprise multiple layers of coating alternated with multiple layers of active ingredients, such that each layer of coating releases a certain volume of active ingredients as it dissolves. In other embodiments, sPLA₂ inhibitor, statin, or combined sPLA₂ inhibitor and statin pharmaceutical compositions may be administered via an immediate release delivery vehicle.

A therapeutically effective amount of an sPLA₂ inhibitor or a compound used in the treatment of CVD for use in the methods or compositions disclosed herein may be determined for each compound individually. For example, statins or statin combination drugs may be administered or included in a pharmaceutical composition at a dosage that is well known in the art to decrease cholesterol levels. One of skill in the art will recognize that in those embodiments wherein one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD are combined with one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors in a single composition, the amount of the compound used in the treatment of CVD that constitutes a therapeutically effective amount may be different than the amount of the compound that constitutes a therapeutically effective amount of the compound when administered alone due to, for example, interactions between the compound and the one or more sPLA₂ inhibitors. For example, the effective dosage of a statin for use in combination therapy may be lower than the standard dosage for the statin when administered alone. In this situation, one of skill in the art will be able to readily determine a therapeutically effective amount for the combination composition using methods well known in the art. In certain embodiments, a therapeutically effective amount of an sPLA₂ inhibitor for use alone or in combination with one or more compounds used in the treatment of CVD may be from about 5 to about 10,000 mg/dose. In certain of these embodiments, a therapeutically effective amount of an sPLA₂ inhibitor may be from about 25 to about 5,000 mg/dose, and in certain of these embodiments a therapeutically effective amount may be from about 50 to about 500 mg/dose.

In certain embodiments, an sPLA₂ inhibitor for use in the compositions and methods disclosed herein may be an indole-based sPLA₂ inhibitor, meaning that the compound contains an indole nucleus having the structure:

A variety of indole-based sPLA₂ inhibitors are known in the art. For example, indole-based sPLA₂ inhibitors that may be used in conjunction with the present invention include but are not limited to those set forth in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,654,326 (Bach); 5,733,923 (Bach); 5,919,810 (Bach); 5,919,943 (Bach); 6,175,021 (Bach); 6,177,440 (Bach); 6,274,578 (Denney); and 6,433,001 (Bach), the entire disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein. Methods of making indole-based sPLA₂ inhibitors are set forth in, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,986,106 (Khau); 6,265,591 (Anderson); and 6,380,397 (Anderson), the entire disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein. sPLA₂ inhibitors for use in the present invention may be generated using these synthesis methods, or using any other synthesis method known in the art. In certain embodiments, sPLA₂ inhibitors for use in the present invention may be sPLA₂ type IIA, type V, and/or type X inhibitors. Various examples of indole-based sPLA₂ inhibitors are set forth below. These examples are merely provided as illustrations of the types of inhibitors that may be used in conjunction with the present invention, and as such are not meant to be limiting. One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that a variety of other indole-based sPLA₂ inhibitors may be used.

In certain embodiments, sPLA₂ inhibitors for use in the current invention are 1H-indole-3-glyoxylamide compounds having the structure:

wherein: each X is independently oxygen or sulfur; R₁ is selected from the group consisting of (a), (b), and (c), wherein:

(a) is C₇-C₂₀ alkyl, C₇-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₇-C₂₀ alkynyl, carbocyclic radicals, or heterocyclic radicals;

(b) is a member of (a) substituted with one or more independently selected non-interfering substituents; and

(c) is the group -(L)-R₈₀, where, -(L)- is a divalent linking group of 1 to 12 atoms selected from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur, wherein the combination of atoms in -(L)- are selected from the group consisting of (i) carbon and hydrogen only, (ii) sulfur only, (iii) oxygen only, (iv) nitrogen and hydrogen only, (v) carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur only, and (vi) carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen only; and where R₈₀ is a group selected from (a) or (b);

R₂ is hydrogen, halo, C₁-C₃ alkyl, C₃-C₄ cycloalkyl, C₃-C₄ cycloalkenyl, —O—(C₁-C₂ alkyl), —S—(C₁-C₂ alkyl), or a non-interfering substituent having a total of 1 to 3 atoms other than hydrogen; R₄ and R₅ are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, a non-interfering substituent, and -(L_(a))- (acidic group), wherein -(L_(a))- is an acid linker having an acid linker length of 1 to 4; provided that at least one of R₄ and R₅ must be -(L_(a))- (acidic group); R₆ and R₇ are each independently selected from hydrogen, non-interfering substituents, carbocyclic radicals, carbocyclic radicals substituted with non-interfering substituents, heterocyclic radicals, and heterocyclic radicals substituted with non-interfering substituents; provided that for any of the groups R₁, R₆, and R₇, the carbocyclic radical is selected from the group consisting of cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, phenyl, naphthyl, norbornanyl, bicycloheptadienyl, toluoyl, xylenyl, indenyl, stilbenzyl, terphenylyl, diphenylethylenyl, phenyl-cyclohexenly, acenaphthylenyl, and anthracenyl, biphenyl, bibenzylyl and related bibenzylyl homologues represented by the formula (bb),

where n is a number from 1 to 8; provided, that for any of the groups R₁, R₆, and R₇, the heterocyclic radical is selected from the group consisting of pyrrolyl, furanyl, thiophenyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl, phenylimidazolyl, triazolyl, isoxazolyl, oxazolyl, thiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, indolyl, carbazolyl, norharmanyl, azaindolyl, benzofuranyl, dibenzofuranyl, thianaphtheneyl, dibenzothiophenyl, indazolyl, imidazo(1.2-A)pyridinyl, benzotriazolyl, anthranilyl, 1,2-benzisoxazolyl, benzoxazolyl, benzotriazolyl, purinyl, pryidinyl, dipyridylyl. phenylpyridinyl, benzylpyridinyl, pyrimidinyl, phenylpyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, 1,3,5-triazinyl, quinolinyl, phthalazinyl, quinazolinyl, and quinoxalinyl; and provided that for the groups R₁, R₂, R₄, R₅, R₆, and R₇ the non-interfering substituent is selected from the group consisting of C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₇-C₁₂ aralkyl, C₇-C₁₂ alkaryl, C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl, C₃-C₈ cycloalkenyl, phenyl, toluoyl, xylenyl, biphenyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy, C₂-C₆ alkenyloxy, C₂-C₆ alkynyloxy, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyalkyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyalkyloxy, C₂-C₁₂ alkylcarbonyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkylcarbonylamino, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyamino, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyaminocarbonyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkylamino, C₁-C₆ alkylthio, C₂-C₁₂ alkylthiocarbonyl, C₁-C₆ alkylsulfinyl, C₁-C₆ alkylsulfonyl, C₂-C₆ haloalkoxy, C₁-C₆ haloalkylsulfonyl, C₂-C₆ haloalkyl, C₁-C₆ hydroxyalkyl, —C(O)O(C₁-C₆ alkyl), —(CH₂)_(n)—O—(C₁-C₆ alkyl), benzyloxy, phenoxy, phenylthio, —(CONHSO₂R), —CHO, amino, amidino, bromo, carbamyl, carboxyl, carbalkoxy, —(CH₂)_(n)—CO₂H, chloro, cyano, cyanoguanidinyl, fluoro, guanidino, hydrazide, hydrazino, hydrazido, hydroxy, hydroxyamino, iodo, nitro, phosphono, —SO₃H, thioacetal, thiocarbonyl, and C₁-C₆ carbonyl, where n is from 1 to 8; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, prodrug derivatives, racemates, tautomers, or optical isomers thereof.

In certain of these embodiments, -(L)- has the formula:

wherein R₈₁ and R₈₂ are each independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, carboxy, carbalkoxy, and halo; p is a number from 1 to 5; and Z is selected from the group consisting of a bond, —(CH₂)—, —O—, —N(C₁-C₁₀ alkyl)-, —NH—, and —S—.

In certain of these embodiments wherein R₄ is -(L_(a))- (acidic group), the acid linker -(L_(a))- has the formula:

wherein Q is selected from the group consisting of —(CH₂)—, —O—, —NH—, and —S—; and R₈₃ and R₈₄ are each independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₁₀ alkaryl, C₁-C₁₀ aralkyl, hydroxy, and halo.

In certain of these embodiments wherein R₅ is -(L_(a))- (acidic group), the acid linker -(L_(a))- has the formula:

wherein r is a number from 2 to 7; s is 0 or 1; Q is selected from the group consisting of —(CH₂)—, —O—, —NH—, and —S—; and R₈₅ and R₈₆ are each independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₁₀ alkaryl, C₁-C₁₀ aralkyl, carboxy, carbalkoxy, and halo.

In certain embodiments, a 1H-indole-3-glyoxylamide compound for use in the present invention is selected from the group consisting of: ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; [[3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl]oxy]acetic acid methyl ester; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-methyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; dl-2-((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-methyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)propanoic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-2-ylmethyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-3-ylmethyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-4-ylmethyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((2,6-dichlorophenyl)methyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-(4(-fluorophenyl)methyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-methyl-1-((1-naphthalenyl)methyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((3-chlorophenyl)methyl)-2-ethyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-2-ylmethyl)-2-ethyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-2-ylmethyl)-2-propyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-cyclopropyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-2-ylmethyl)-2-cyclopropyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; and 4-((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-5-yl)oxy)butanoic acid, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, prodrug derivatives, racemates, tautomers, or optical isomers thereof.

In certain embodiments, sPLA₂ inhibitors for use in the current invention are 1H-indole-3-glyoxylamide compounds having the structure:

wherein: both X are oxygen; R₁ is selected from the group consisting of:

wherein R₁₀ is a radical independently selected from halo, C₁-C₁₀ alkoxy, —S—(C₁-C₁₀ alkyl), and C₁-C₁₀ haloalkyl, and t is a number from 0 to 5; R₂ is selected from the group consisting of halo, cyclopropyl, methyl, ethyl, and propyl; R₄ and R₅ are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, a non-interfering substituent, and -(L_(a))- (acidic group), wherein -(L_(a))- is an acid linker; provided that the acid linker -(L_(a))- for R₄ is selected from the group consisting of:

and provided that the acid linker -(L_(a))- for R₅ is selected from the group consisting of:

wherein R₈₄ and R₈₅ are each independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₁₀ alkaryl, C₁-C₁₀ aralkyl, carboxy, carbalkoxy, and halo; provided that at least one of R₄ and R₅ must be -(L_(a))-(acidic group), and (acidic group) on -(L_(a))- (acidic group) of R₄ or R₅ is selected from —CO₂H, —SO₃H, or —P(O)(OH)₂; R₆ and R₇ are each independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen and non-interfering substituents, with the non-interfering substituents being selected from the group consisting of: C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₇-C₁₂ aralkyl, C₇-C₁₂ alkaryl, C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl, C₃-C₈ cycloalkenyl, phenyl, toluoyl, xylenyl, biphenyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy, C₂-C₆ alkenyloxy, C₂-C₆ alkynyloxy, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyalkyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyalkyloxy, C₂-C₁₂ alkyl carbonyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkylcarbonylamino, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyamino, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyaminocarbonyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkylamino, C₁-C₆ alkylthio, C₂-C₁₂ alkylthiocarbonyl, C₁-C₆ alkylsulfinyl, C₁-C₆ alkylsulfonyl, C₂-C₆ haloalkoxy, C₁-C₆ haloalkylsulfonyl, C₂-C₆ haloalkyl, C₁-C₆ hydroxyalkyl, —C(O)O(C₁-C₆ alkyl), —(CH₂)_(n)—O—(C₁-C₆ alkyl), benzyloxy, phenoxy, phenylthio, —(CONHSO₂R), —CHO, amino, amidino, bromo, carbamyl, carboxyl, carbalkoxy, —(CH₂)_(n)—CO₂H, chloro, cyano, cyanoguanidinyl, fluoro, guanidino, hydrazide, hydrazino, hydrazido, hydroxy, hydroxyamino, iodo, nitro, phosphono, —SO₃H, thioacetal, thiocarbonyl, and C₁-C₆ carbonyl; wherein n is from 1 to 8; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, prodrug derivatives, racemates, tautomers, or optical isomers thereof.

In certain embodiments, 1H-indole-3-glyoxylamide compounds for use in the present invention are selected from the group consisting of: ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-methyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-methyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid methyl ester; dl-2-((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-methyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)propanoic acid; dl-2-((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-methyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)propanoic acid methyl ester; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-2-ylmethyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-2-ylmethyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid methyl ester; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-3-ylmethyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-3-ylmethyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid methyl ester; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-4-ylmethyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-4-ylmethyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid methyl ester; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((2,6-dichlorophenyl)methyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((2,6-dichlorophenyl)methyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid methyl ester; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-(4(-fluorophenyl)methyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-(4(-fluorophenyl)methyl)-2-methyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid methyl ester; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-methyl-1-((1-naphthalenyl)methyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-methyl-1-((1-naphthalenyl)methyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid methyl ester; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((3-chlorophenyl)methyl)-2-ethyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((3-chlorophenyl)methyl)-2-ethyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid methyl ester; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-2-ylmethyl)-2-ethyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-2-ylmethyl)-2-ethyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid methyl ester; ((3-(2-amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-2-ylmethyl)-2-propyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-2-ylmethyl)-2-propyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid methyl ester; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-cyclopropyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-cyclopropyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid methyl ester; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-2-ylmethyl)-2-cyclopropyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid; ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-1-((1,1′-biphenyl)-2-ylmethyl)-2-cyclopropyl-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid methyl ester; 4-((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-5-yl)oxy)butanoic acid; 4-((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-5-yl)oxy) butanoic acid tert-butyl ester, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, prodrug derivatives, racemates, tautomers, or optical isomers thereof.

In certain embodiments, sPLA₂ inhibitors for use in the current invention are 1H-indole-3-glyoxylamide compounds having the structure:

wherein: each X is independently oxygen or sulfur; R₁ is selected from groups (a), (b), and (c) wherein:

(a) is C₇-C₂₀ alkyl, C₇-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₇-C₂₀ alkynyl, carbocyclic radical, or heterocyclic radical;

(b) is a member of (a) substituted with one or more independently selected non-interfering substituents; and

(c) is the group -(L)-R₈₀, wherein -(L)- is a divalent linking group of 1 to 12 atoms selected from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur;

wherein the combination of atoms in -(L)- are selected from the group consisting of (i) carbon and hydrogen only, (ii) sulfur only, (iii) oxygen only, (iv) nitrogen and hydrogen only, (v) carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur only, and (vi) and carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen only; and where R₈₀ is a group selected from (a) or (b); R₂ is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, halo, C₁-C₃ alkyl, C₃-C₄ cycloalkyl, C₃-C₄ cycloalkenyl, —O—(C₁-C₂ alkyl), —S—(C₁-C₂ alkyl), and a non-interfering substituent having a total of 1 to 3 atoms other than hydrogen; R₄ and R₅ are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, a non-interfering substituent, and the group -(L_(a))- (acidic group), wherein -(L_(a))- is an acid linker having an acid linker length of 1 to 4; provided that at least one of R₄ and R₅ is -(L_(a))- (acidic group); R₆ and R₇ are each independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, non-interfering substituents, carbocyclic radicals, carbocyclic radicals substituted with non-interfering substituents, heterocyclic radicals, and heterocyclic radicals substituted with non-interfering substituents; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, prodrug derivatives, racemates, tautomers, or optical isomers thereof.

In certain embodiments, sPLA₂ inhibitors for use in the current invention are methyl ester prodrug derivatives of 1H-indole-3-glyoxylamide compounds having the structure:

wherein: both X are oxygen; R₁ is selected from the group consisting of:

wherein R₁₀ is a radical independently selected from halo, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkoxy, —S—(C₁-C₁₀ alkyl), and C₁-C₁₀ haloalkyl, and t is a number from 0 to 5; R₂ is selected from the group consisting of halo, cyclopropyl, methyl, ethyl, and propyl; R₄ and R₅ are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, a non-interfering substituent, and -(L_(a))- (acidic group), wherein -(L_(a))- is an acid linker; provided that the acid linker -(L_(a))- for R₄ is selected from the group consisting of:

and provided that the acid linker -(L_(a))- for R₅ is selected from the group consisting of:

wherein R₈₄ and R₈₅ are each independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₁₀ alkaryl, C₁-C₁₀ aralkyl, carboxy, carbalkoxy, and halo; provided that at least one of R₄ and R₅ must be -(L_(a))- (acidic group), and (acidic group) on -(L_(a))- (acidic group) of R₄ or R₅ is selected from —CO₂H, —SO₃H, or —P(O)(OH)₂; R₆ and R₇ are each independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen and non-interfering substituents, with the non-interfering substituents being selected from the group consisting of: C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₇-C₁₂ aralkyl, C₇-C₁₂ alkaryl, C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl, C₃-C₈ cycloalkenyl, phenyl, toluoyl, xylenyl, biphenyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy, C₂-C₆ alkenyloxy, C₂-C₆ alkynyloxy, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyalkyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyalkyloxy, C₂-C₁₂ alkyl carbonyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkylcarbonylamino, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyamino, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyaminocarbonyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkylamino, C₁-C₆ alkylthio, C₂-C₁₂ alkylthiocarbonyl, C₁-C₆ alkylsulfinyl, C₁-C₆ alkylsulfonyl, C₂-C₆ haloalkoxy, C₁-C₆ haloalkylsulfonyl, C₂-C₆ haloalkyl, C₁-C₆ hydroxyalkyl, —C(O)O(C₁-C₆ alkyl), —(CH₂)_(n)—O—(C₁-C₆ alkyl), benzyloxy, phenoxy, phenylthio, —(CONHSO₂R), —CHO, amino, amidino, bromo, carbamyl, carboxyl, carbalkoxy, —(CH₂)_(n)—CO₂H , chloro, cyano, cyanoguanidinyl, fluoro, guanidino, hydrazide, hydrazino, hydrazido, hydroxy, hydroxyamino, iodo, nitro, phosphono, —SO₃H, thioacetal, thiocarbonyl, and C₁-C₆ carbonyl; wherein n is from 1 to 8; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, prodrug derivatives, racemates, tautomers, or optical isomers thereof.

In certain embodiments, sPLA₂ inhibitors for use in the current invention are (acyloxy) alkyl ester prodrug derivatives of 1H-indole-3-glyoxylamide compounds having the structure:

wherein: both X are oxygen; R₁ is selected from the group consisting of:

wherein R₁₀ is a radical independently selected from halo, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, C₁-C₁₀ alkoxy, —S—(C₁-C₁₀ alkyl), and C₁-C₁₀ haloalkyl, and t is a number from 0 to 5; R₂ is selected from the group consisting of halo, cyclopropyl, methyl, ethyl, and propyl; R₄ and R₅ are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, a non-interfering substituent, and -(L_(a))- (acidic group), wherein -(L_(a))- is an acid linker; provided that the acid linker -(L_(a))- for R₄ is selected from the group consisting of:

and provided that the acid linker -(L_(a))- for R₅ is selected from the group consisting of:

wherein R₈₄ and R₈₅ are each independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₁₀ alkaryl, C₁-C₁₀ aralkyl, carboxy, carbalkoxy, and halo; provided that at least one of R₄ and R₅ must be -(L_(a))- (acidic group), and (acidic group) on -(L_(a))- (acidic group) of R₄ or R₅ is selected from —CO₂H, —SO₃H, or —P(O)(OH)₂; R₆ and R₇ are each independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen and non-interfering substituents, with the non-interfering substituents being selected from the group consisting of: C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₇-C₁₂ aralkyl, C₇-C₁₂ alkaryl, C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl, C₃-C₈ cycloalkenyl, phenyl, toluoyl, xylenyl, biphenyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy, C₂-C₆ alkenyloxy, C₂-C₆ alkynyloxy, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyalkyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyalkyloxy, C₂-C₁₂ alkyl carbonyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkylcarbonylamino, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyamino, C₂-C₁₂ alkoxyaminocarbonyl, C₂-C₁₂ alkylamino, C₁-C₆ alkylthio, C₂-C₁₂ alkylthiocarbonyl, C₁-C₆ alkylsulfinyl, C₁-C₆ alkylsulfonyl, C₂-C₆ haloalkoxy, C₁-C₆ haloalkylsulfonyl, C₂-C₆ haloalkyl, C₁-C₆ hydroxyalkyl, —C(O)O(C₁-C₆ alkyl), —(CH₂)_(n)—O—(C₁-C₆ alkyl), benzyloxy, phenoxy, phenylthio, —(CONHSO₂R), —CHO, amino, amidino, bromo, carbamyl, carboxyl, carbalkoxy, —(CH₂)_(n)—CO₂H, chloro, cyano, cyanoguanidinyl, fluoro, guanidino, hydrazide, hydrazino, hydrazido, hydroxy, hydroxyamino, iodo, nitro, phosphono, —SO₃H, thioacetal, thiocarbonyl, and C₁-C₆ carbonyl; wherein n is from 1 to 8; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, prodrug derivatives, racemates, tautomers, or optical isomers thereof.

In certain embodiments, sPLA₂ inhibitors for use in the current invention are substituted tricyclics having the structure:

wherein: R₁ is selected from the group consisting of —NHNH₂ and —NH₂; R₂ is selected from the group consisting of —OH and —O(CH₂)_(m)R₅; wherein R₅ is selected from the group consisting of H, —CO₂H, —CO₂(C₁-C₄ alkyl), —SO₃H, —SO₃(C₁-C₄ alkyl), tetrazolyl, —CN, —NH₂, —NHSO₂R₁₅, —CONHSO₂R₁₅, phenyl, phenyl substituted with —CO₂H or —CO₂(C₁-C₄)alkyl, and

wherein R₆ and R₇ are each independently selected from the group consisting of —OH, —O(C₁-C₄)alkyl; R₁₅ is selected from the group consisting of —(C₁-C₆)alkyl and —CF₃; and m is 1-3; R₃ is selected from the group consisting of H, —O(C₁-C₄)alkyl, halo, —(C₁-C₆)alkyl, phenyl, —(C₁-C₄)alkylphenyl, phenyl substituted with —(C₁-C₆)alkyl, halo, or —CF₃, —CH₂OSi(C₁-C₆)alkyl, furyl, thiophenyl, —(C₁-C₆)hydroxyalkyl, and —(CH₂)_(n)R₈; wherein R₈ is selected from the group consisting of H, —CONH₂, —NR₉R₁₀, —CN, and phenyl; wherein R₉ and R₁₀ are each independently —(C₁-C₄)alkyl or -phenyl(C₁-C₄)alkyl; and n is 1 to 8; R₄ is selected from the group consisting of H, —(C₅-C₁₄)alkyl, —(C₃-C₁₄)cycloalkyl, pyridyl, phenyl, and phenyl substituted with —(C₁-C₆)alkyl, halo, —CF₃, —OCF₃, —(C₁-C₄)alkoxy, —CN, —(C₁-C₄)alkylthio, phenyl(C₁-C₄)alkyl, —(C₁-C₄)alkylphenyl, phenyl, phenoxy, or naphthyl; A is selected from the group consisting of phenyl and pyridyl wherein the nitrogen is at the 5-, 6-, 7-, or 8-position; Z is selected from the group consisting of cyclohexenyl, phenyl, pyridyl wherein the nitrogen is at the 1-, 2-, or 3-position, and a 6-membered heterocyclic ring having one heteroatom selected from the group consisting of sulfur and oxygen at the 1-, 2-, or 3-position and nitrogen at the 1-, 2-, 3-, or 4- position, or wherein one carbon on the heterocyclic ring is optionally substituted with ═O; and wherein one of A or Z is a heterocyclic ring; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, prodrug derivatives, racemates, tautomers, or optical isomers thereof.

In certain embodiments, sPLA₂ inhibitors for use in the current invention are substituted tricyclics having the structure:

wherein: Z is selected from the group consisting of cyclohexenyl and phenyl; R₂₁ is a non-interfering substituent;

R₁ is —NHNH₂ or —NH₂;

R₂ is selected from the group consisting of —OH and —O(CH₂)_(m)R₅; wherein R₅ is selected from the group consisting of H, —CO₂H, —CONH₂, —CO₂(C₁-C₄ alkyl), —SO₃H, —SO₃(C₁-C₄ alkyl), tetrazolyl, —CN, —NH₂, —NHSO₂R₁₅, —CONHSO₂R₁₅, phenyl, phenyl substituted with —CO₂H or —CO₂(C₁-C₄)alkyl, and

wherein R₆ and R₇ are each independently selected from the group consisting of —OH, —O(C₁-C₄)alkyl; R₁₅ is selected from the group consisting of —(C₁-C₆)alkyl and —CF₃; and m is 1-3;

R₃ selected from the group consisting of H, —O(C₁-C₄)alkyl, halo, —(C₁-C₆)alkyl, phenyl, —(C₁-C₄)alkylphenyl, phenyl substituted with —(C₁-C₆)alkyl, halo, or —CF₃, —CH₂OSi(C₁-C₆)alkyl, furyl, thiophenyl, —(C₁-C₆)hydroxyalkyl, and —(CH₂)_(n)R₈, wherein R₈ is selected from the group consisting of H, —CONH₂, —NR₉R₁₀, —CN, and phenyl; R₉ and R₁₀ are each independently selected from the group consisting of H, —CF₃, phenyl, —(C₁-C₄)alkyl, —(C₁-C₄)alkylphenyl, and -phenyl(C₁-C₄)alkyl; and n is 1 to 8;

R₄ is selected from the group consisting of H, —(C₅-C₁₄)alkyl, —(C₃-C₁₄)cycloalkyl, pyridyl, phenyl, phenyl substituted with —(C₁-C₆)alkyl, halo, —CF₃, —OCF₃, —(C₁-C₄)alkoxy, —CN, —(C₁-C₄)alkylthio, -phenyl(C₁-C₄)alkyl, —(C₁-C₄)alkylphenyl, phenyl, phenoxy and naphthyl; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, prodrug derivatives, racemates, tautomers, or optical isomers thereof.

In certain embodiments, sPLA₂ inhibitors for use in the current invention are selected from the group consisting of: {9-[(phenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; 9-benzyl-5,7-dimethoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazole-4-carboxylic acid hydrazide; 9-benzyl-5,7-dimethoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazole-4-carboxamide; [9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-7-methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-5-yl]oxyacetic acid; [9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-7-methoxycarbazol-5-yl]oxyacetic acid; methyl[9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-7-methoxycarbazol-5-yl]oxyacetic acid; 9-benzyl-7-methoxy-5-cyanomethyloxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazole-4-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-7-methoxy-5-(1H-tetrazol-5-yl-methyl)oxy)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazole-4-carboxamide; {9-[(phenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoyl-2-methyl-carbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-fluorophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoyl-2-methylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-methylphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoyl-2-methylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(phenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoyl-2-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)-carbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; 9-benzyl-5-(2-methanesulfonamido)ethyloxy-7-methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazole-4-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-4-(2-methanesulfonamido)ethyloxy-2-methoxycarbazole-5-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-4-(2-trifluoromethanesulfonamido)ethyloxy-2-methoxycarbazole-5-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-5-methanesulfonamidoylmethyloxy-7-methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazole-4-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-4-methanesulfonamidoylmethyloxy-carbazole-5-carboxamide; [5-carbamoyl-2-pentyl-9-(phenylmethyl)carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-2-(1-methylethyl)-9-(phenylmethyl)carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-9-(phenylmethyl)-2-[(tri(−1-methylethyl)sily)oxymethyl]carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-2-phenyl-9-(phenylmethyl)carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-2-(4-chlorophenyl)-9-(phenylmethyl)carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-2-(2-furyl)-9-(phenylmethyl)carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-9-(phenylmethyl)-2-[(tri(−1-methylethyl)sily)oxymethyl]carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-Fluorophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-trifluoromethylphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-benzylphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(1-naphthyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-cyanophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-cyanophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3,5-dimethylphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-iodophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-Chlorophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2,3-difluorophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2,6-difluorophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2,6-dichlorophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-biphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-Biphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid methyl ester; [9-Benzyl-4-carbamoyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-5-yl]oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-Pyridyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-Pyridyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; [9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-8-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-5-yl]oxyacetic acid; [9-benzyl-5-carbamoyl-1-methylcarbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-8-fluoro-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-5-yl]oxyacetic acid; [9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-8-chloro-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-5-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-9-(phenylmethyl)-2-[[(propen-3-yl)oxy]methyl]carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-9-(phenylmethyl)-2-[(propyloxy)methyl]carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; 9-benzyl-7-methoxy-5-((carboxamidomethyl)oxy)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazole-4-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-7-methoxy-5-cyanomethyloxy-carbazole-4-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-7-methoxy-5-((1H-tetrazol-5-yl-methyl)oxy)-carbazole-4-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-7-methoxy-5-((carboxamidomethyl)oxy)-carbazole-4-carboxamide; [9-Benzyl-4-carbamoyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazole-5-yl]oxyacetic acid; {9-[(phenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoyl-2-methyl-carbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-fluorophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoyl-2-methylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-methylphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoyl-2-methylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(phenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoyl-2-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)-carbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; 9-benzyl-5-(2-methanesulfonamido)ethyloxy-7-methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazole-4-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-4-(2-methanesulfonamido)ethyloxy-2-methoxycarbazole-5-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-4-(2-trifluoromethanesulfonamido)ethyloxy-2-methoxycarbazole-5-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-5-methanesulfonamidoylmethyloxy-7-methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazole-4-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-4-methanesulfonamidoylmethyloxy-carbazole-5-carboxamide; [5-carbamoyl-2-pentyl-9-(phenylmethyl)carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-2-(1-methylethyl)-9-(phenylmethyl)carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-9-(phenylmethyl)-2-[(tri(−1-methylethyl)sily)oxymethyl]carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-2-phenyl-9-(phenylmethyl)carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-2-(4-chlorophenyl)-9-(phenylmethyl)carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-2-(2-furyl)-9-(phenylmethyl)carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-9-(phenylmethyl)-2-[(tri(−1-methylethyl)sily)oxymethyl]carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-fluorophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-chlorophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-phenoxyphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-Fluorophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-trifluoromethylphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-benzylphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(1-naphthyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-cyanophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-cyanophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-methylphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-methylphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3,5-dimethylphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-iodophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-Chlorophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2,3-difluorophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2,6-difluorophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2,6-dichlorophenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-trifluoromethoxyphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-biphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-Biphenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid methyl ester; [9-Benzyl-4-carbamoyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazole-5-yl]oxyacetic acid; {9-[(2-Pyridyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; {9-[(3-Pyridyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid; [9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-8-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-5-yl]oxyacetic acid; [9-benzyl-5-carbamoyl-1-methylcarbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-8-fluoro-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-5-yl]oxyacetic acid; [9-benzyl-5-carbamoyl-1-fluorocarbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-8-chloro-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-5-yl]oxyacetic acid; [9-benzyl-5-carbamoyl-1-chlorocarbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [9-[(Cyclohexyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [9-[(Cyclopentyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-9-(phenylmethyl)-2-(2-thienyl)carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-9-(phenylmethyl)-2-[[(propen-3-yl)oxy]methyl]carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; [5-carbamoyl-9-(phenylmethyl)-2-[(propyloxy)methyl]carbazol-4-yl]oxyacetic acid; 9-benzyl-7-methoxy-5-((carboxamidomethyl)oxy)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazole-4-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-7-methoxy-5-cyanomethyloxy-carbazole-4-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-7-methoxy-5-((1H-tetrazol-5-yl-methyl)oxy)-carbazole-4-carboxamide; 9-benzyl-7-methoxy-5-((carboxamidomethyl)oxy)-carbazole-4-carboxamide; [9-Benzyl-4-carbamoyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazole-5-yl]oxyacetic acid; (R,S)-(9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-1-oxo-3-thia-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-5-yl)oxyacetic acid; (R,S)-(9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-3-thia-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-5-yl)oxyacetic acid; 2-(4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-benzyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl)acetic acid chloride; [N-benzyl-1-carbamoyl-1-aza-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-8-yl]oxyacetic acid; 4-methoxy-6-methoxycarbonyl-10-phenylmethyl-6,7,8,9-tetrahydropyrido[1,2-a]indole; (4-carboxamido-9-phenylmethyl-4,5-dihydrothiopyrano[3,4-b]indol-5-yl)oxyacetic acid; 3,4-dihydro-4-carboxamidol-5-methoxy-9-phenylmethylpyrano[3,4-b]indole; 2-[(2,9 bis-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-betacarbolin-5-yl)oxy]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2-methylbenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(3-methylbenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(4-methylbenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(4-tert-butylbenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-pentafluorobenzyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2-fluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(3-fluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(4-fluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2,6-difluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(3,4-difluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2,5-difluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(3,5-difluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2,4-difluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2,3-difluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[2-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[2-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[3-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[4-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[2,4-bis(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(a-methylnaphthyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(b-methylnaphthyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(3,5-dimethylbenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2,4-dimethylbenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2-phenylbenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(3-phenylbenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(4-phenylbenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(1-fluorenylmethy)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2-fluoro-3-methylbenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(3-benzoylbenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2-phenoxybenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(3-phenoxybenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(4-phenoxybenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[3-[2-(fluorophenoxy)benzyl]]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[3-[4-(fluorophenoxy)benzyl]]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[2-fluoro-3-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[2-fluoro-4-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[2-fluoro-5-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[3-fluoro-5-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[4-fluoro-2-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[4-fluoro-3-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[2-fluoro-6-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2,3,6-trifluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2,3,5-trifluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2,4,5-trifluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2,4,6-trifluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2,3,4-trifluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(3,4,5-trifluorobenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[3-(trifluoromethoxyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[4-(trifluoromethoxyl)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[4-methoxy(tetrafluoro)benzyl]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2-methoxybenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(3-methoxybenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(4-methoxybenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(4-ethylbenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(4-isopropylbenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(3,4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(4-methoxy-3-methylbenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(3,5-dimethoxybenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2,5-dimethoxybenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(4-ethoxybenzyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(cyclohexylmethyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(cyclopentylmethyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-ethyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(1-propyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2-propyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(1-butyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(2-butyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-isobutyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[2-(1-phenylethyl)]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[3-(1-phenylpropyl)]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-[4-(1-phenylbutyl)]-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(1-pentyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 2-[4-oxo-5-carboxamido-9-(1-hexyl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indolyl]acetic acid; 4-[(9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-6-yl)oxy]butyric acid; 3-[(9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-6-yl)oxy]propylphosphonic acid; 2-[(9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-6-yl)oxy]methylbenzoic acid; 3-[(9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-7-n-octyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-6-yl)oxy]propylphosphonic acid; 4-[(9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-7-ethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-6-yl)oxy]butyric acid; 3-[(9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-7-ethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-6-yl)oxy]propylphosphonic acid; 3-[(9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-7-ethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-6-yl)oxy]propylphosphonic acid; (S)-(+)-4-[(9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-7-ethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-6-yl)oxy]butyric acid; 4-[9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-6-(2-cyanoethyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-6-yl]oxybutyric acid; 4-[9-benzyl-4-carboxamido-7-(2-phenylethyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-6-yl]oxybutyric acid; 4-[9-benzyl-4-carboxamidocarbazol-6-yl]oxybutyric acid; methyl 2-[(9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-6-yl)oxy]methylbenzoate; 4-[9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-7-(2-cyanoethyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazol-6-yl]oxybutyric acid; 9-benzyl-7-methoxy-5-cyanomethyloxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocarbazole-4-carboxamide; [9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-8-methyl-carbazole-5-yl]oxyacetic acid; and [9-benzyl-4-carbamoyl-carbazole-5-yl]oxyacetic acid, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, prodrug derivatives, racemates, tautomers, or optical isomers thereof.

In certain preferred embodiments, an sPLA₂ inhibitor for use in the present invention is ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid, also referred to herein as compound A-001. Compound A-001, which is also referred to in the art as S-5920 or LY315920, has the structure:

A-001 competitively inhibits sPLA₂.

In certain other preferred embodiments, an sPLA₂ inhibitor for use in the present invention is [[3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl]oxy)acetic acid methyl ester, also referred to herein as compound A-002. Compound A-002 has the structure:

Compound A-002, which is sometimes referred to in the art as S-3013 or LY333013, is a prodrug form of A-001 that is rapidly absorbed and hydrolyzed to A-001 following administration to a subject.

In certain other preferred embodiments, an sPLA₂ inhibitor for use in the present invention is {9-[(phenyl)methyl]-5-carbamoylcarbazol-4-yl}oxyacetic acid, also referred to herein as compound A-003 or LY433771. Compound A-003 has the structure:

In still other preferred embodiments, an sPLA₂ inhibitor for use in the present invention is ((3-(2-amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-methyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid N-morpholino ethyl ester, also referred to herein as compound 421079. Compound 421079 has the structure:

Like A-002, compound 421079 is a prodrug of A-001.

The following examples are provided to better illustrate the claimed invention and are not to be interpreted as limiting the scope of the invention. To the extent that specific materials are mentioned, it is merely for purposes of illustration and is not intended to limit the invention. One skilled in the art may develop equivalent means or reactants without the exercise of inventive capacity and without departing from the scope of the invention. It will be understood that many variations can be made in the procedures herein described while still remaining within the bounds of the present invention. It is the intention of the inventors that such variations are included within the scope of the invention.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Effect of A-002 Administration on Plasma Cholesterol Levels and Atherosclerotic Plaque Formation in Mice

Male ApoE^(−/−) mice were fed a high fat diet (21% fat, 0.15% cholesterol, 19.5% casein) ad libitum for two weeks in order to acclimate to the diet. Plasma cholesterol levels and body weight were measured in order to obtain baseline levels, and mice were randomized into three groups of 20 mice based on these measurements. After the acclimation period, mice remained on the high fat diet and were administered A-002 (30 mg/kg or 90 mg/kg) or vehicle only (5% acacia) twice a day for 16 weeks by oral gavage.

Plasma cholesterol levels and body weight were measured at 4, 8, 12, and 16 weeks after the start of A-002 administration. Comparisons of measurements between test and control mice at each time period were performed using a two-way analysis of variance test (ANOVA) for repeated measures, followed by post-hoc Bonferroni test for significance.

At the end of the 16th week, mice were sacrificed and plasma samples, heart tissue, and aortas from the heart to approximately 3 mm distal to the iliac bifurcation were collected. Aortas were placed on microscope slides and stained with Oil Red O for scanning and image analysis of atherosclerotic lesion size. Vessel images were captured using a Microtek Scanmaker 9600XL scanner (Microtek, Carson, Calif.) and Photoshop 6.0 software (Adobe Systems Inc., San Jose, Calif.). Atherosclerotic plaque coverage was quantified for the entire length of the vessel including the arch using Image-Pro Plus software. Vessels were also analyzed for plaque coverage in the descending abdominal aorta, starting in the region of the first intercostal branches to the iliac bifurcation (not including the arch). Plaque content was expressed as a percent of the aortic surface. For assessment of significance in atherosclerotic plaque content between test and control mice, a one-way analysis of variance test followed by Bonferroni post-hoc test was used.

All three groups of mice (control, 30 mg/kg A-002, and 90 mg/kg A-002) had similar baseline body weights (FIG. 1). Body weight increased over the 16 week test period by approximately 155%, 150%, and 141% for control, 30 mg/kg A-002, and 90 mg/kg A-002 mice, respectively (FIG. 1). There was no statistically significant difference in body weight between the three groups.

Baseline total plasma cholesterol levels were not significantly different between the three groups (FIG. 2). At four weeks, mice receiving A-002 at either dosage exhibited a significant decrease in total cholesterol. This effect remained consistent throughout the remainder of the 16 week test period. At 16 weeks, the change from baseline in total cholesterol was +15%, −10%, and −12% in control, 30 mg/kg A-002, and 90 mg/kg A-002 mice, respectively (FIG. 2). There was no apparent dose-response effect.

Control mice exhibited approximately 13% plaque coverage in aortic tissue at 16 weeks (FIG. 3). 30 mg/kg A-002 and 90 mg/kg A-002 mice exhibited 6.3% and 6.8% plaque coverage, respectively (FIG. 3). Therefore, A-002 treatment resulted in a significant decrease in plaque content.

Example 2 Effect of A-002 Administration on Angiotensin II-Mediated Atherosclerotic Plaque Formation and Aneurysm

A mouse model of accelerated atherosclerosis was utilized to determine the effect of A-002 administration on atherosclerosis and aneurysm formation. ApoE^(−/−) mice acclimated to the same high fat diet utilized in Example 1 were administered angiotensin II with water, angiotensin with 5% acacia, or saline infusion and water twice daily for four weeks. Angiotensin II has been shown to promote atherosclerosis and aneurysm formation in apoE deficient mice (Daugherty 2000). At the end of the test period, plaque coverage was assessed by three independent reviewers, and their assessments were averaged to determine plaque coverage.

Angiotensin II with water or with 5% acacia resulted in similar rates of plaque coverage (FIG. 4) and aneurysm (Table 1). Administration of A-002 at 30 mg/kg twice daily significantly decreased plaque content and aortic level aneurysms in angiotensin II/acacia mice (FIG. 4).

TABLE 1 Effect of A-002 administration on aneurysm rate: Treatment group Aneurysm rate (%) Angiotensin II + 5% acacia 22% (2/9)  Angiotensin + water 25% (5/20)  Saline + water 0% (0/25) Angiotensin II + 5% acacia + 30 mg/kg 0% (0/16) A-002

Example 3 Effect of A-002 or A-002 Plus Statin on Lesion Formation and Composition in Mice

Body weight, plasma total cholesterol, and plasma HDL levels were measured for six groups of twelve ApoE^(−/−) mice. The mice were then placed on a high fat diet for twelve weeks to allow for formation of significant fatty atherosclerotic plaques. The high fat diet was a modified version of the Western diet (TD.88137, Harlan Teklad, Madison, Wis.) consisting of casein (195 g/kg), DL-methionine (3 g/kg), sucrose (341.44 g/kg), corn starch (150 g/kg), anhydrous milkfat (210 g/kg), cholesterol (1.5 g/kg), cellulose (50 g/kg), mineral mix AIN-76 (Teklad; 35 g/kg), calcium carbonate (4 g/kg), vitamin mix (Teklad #40060; 10 g/kg), ethyoxyquin (antioxidant, 0.04 g/kg), and either 0.0156 g/kg (“low dose”) A-002 (Group A), 1.56 g/kg (“high dose”) A-002 (Group B), 0.02 g/kg pravastatin (Group C), low dose A-002 plus 0.02 g/kg pravastatin (Group D), high dose A-002 plus 0.02 g/kg pravastatin (Group E), or vehicle only (Group F). Mice were administered diets A-F in a blinded manner, and food was provided ad libitum. The diet was initially prepared based on the assumption that each mouse weighed 22.5 g and ate 4.5 g/day. Based on body weight and food consumption, the diet was modified over the 12 week course of treatment to adjust for a body weight of 26 g and a food intake of 2.5 g/day. The dosages of A-002 were selected to cover a range of 100-fold based on pharmacokinetics in ApoE^(−/−) mice as well as toxicology and previously observed efficacy in this model.

After twelve weeks, mice were sacrificed and plasma, heart tissue, and aortic tissue were collected. En face lesion size was determined via digital imaging analysis. Percent lesion coverage for each dosage group is summarized in Table 2 and FIG. 5. Plaque content (as measured as en face lesion) was reduced in mice administered A-002 alone, statin alone, or A-002 in combination with statin. The reduction in plaque content in mice administered A-002 plus statin was substantially greater than the reduction in mice administered either compound alone (Table 2, compare Group D vs. Groups A and C; Group E vs. Groups B and C). Further, the reduction in plaque content in mice administered A-002 plus statin was substantially greater than the sum of the reduction in plaque content in mice administered A-002 alone and mice administered statin alone. (Table 2, compare the change in mean % en face lesion vs. control for Group D (i.e., −4.210%) with the sum of the change in mean % en face lesion vs. control for Group A and Group C (i.e., the sum of −2.241% and −0.813%, or −3.054%).) Thus, the administration of A-002 plus statin reduces plaque content in a synergistic manner.

TABLE 2 Effect of A-002 and/or statin administration on en face lesion size: Change in mean % en Dosage Mean % en face lesion P-value vs. group # of mice face lesion vs. control control Low A-002 11 3.386 −2.241 0.0597 (A) High A-002 12 1.469 −4.158 0.0006 (B) Statin 12 4.814 −0.813 0.4797 (C) Low A-002 10 1.417 −4.210 0.0008 plus statin (D) High A-002 10 0.774 −4.853 0.0001 plus statin (E) Control 12 5.627 — — (F)

Plasma total cholesterol and HDL levels were measured. Mean levels of total cholesterol were decreased in mice administered A-002 alone or in combination with statin (Table 3, FIG. 6). Administration of high dosage A-002 plus statin resulted in a greater decrease in total cholesterol than administration of high dosage A-002 or statin alone (Table 3, compare Group E vs. Groups B and C; FIG. 6). Mean levels of HDL were increased in mice administered A-002 at either dosage (Table 4). This increase was greater in mice administered high dose A-002 plus statin than in mice administered high dose A-002 or statin alone (Table 4 compare Group E vs. Groups B and C; FIG. 7).

TABLE 3 Effect of A-002 and/or statin administration on plasma total cholesterol levels Mean total cholesterol Dosage concentration P-value vs. group # of mice (mg/dl) control Low A-002 11 1355.545 0.2296 (A) High A-002 12 1301.750 0.0792 (B) Statin 12 1405.417 0.4647 (C) Low A-002 10 1399.700 0.4521 plus statin (D) High A-002 10 1219.300 0.0152 plus statin (E) Control 12 1478.083 — (F)

TABLE 4 Effect of A-002 and/or statin administration on plasma HDL levels Mean HDL Dosage concentration P-value vs. group # of mice (mg/dl) control Low A-002 (A) 11 21.000 <0.0001 High A-002 12 17.167 0.0825 (B) Statin 12 14.500 0.9067 (C) Low A-002 10 21.300 <0.0001 plus statin (D) High A-002 10 18.500 0.0123 plus statin (E) Control 12 14.667 — (F)

Example 4 Effect of A-002 or A-002 Plus Statin Administration on Serum Lipid Levels in Humans

204 human subjects from the United States with CVD, specifically stable coronary artery disease, were randomized to receive placebo or A-002 via oral administration twice a day over an eight week administration period at dosages of 50 mg, 100 mg, 250 mg, or 500 mg. Levels of various lipids and inflammatory markers were measured at the outset of the trial and at the end of weeks four and/or eight. For data sets with a normal distribution, mean levels of lipids or inflammatory markers were analyzed. For data sets with non-normal distribution, median levels were analyzed. Administration of A-002 at all dosages tested resulted in a decrease in mean levels of serum LDL (Table 5), LDL particles (Table 6), small LDL particles (Table 7), total cholesterol (Table 8), and TG (Table 9), and median levels of sPLA₂ (Table 10). In addition, administration of A-002 decreased median levels of CRP (Table 11). The magnitude of the observed decreases in LDL particle, small LDL particle, and CRP levels are particularly noteworthy because subjects treated with placebo exhibited increases in these markers over the course of the trial (Tables 6, 7, and 11).

TABLE 5 Changes in serum LDL concentration in ITT population following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 154 37 subjects Mean 76.8 mg/dl 77.7 mg/dl [LDL] Week 8 # of 143 36 subjects observed Change in −8.2 mg/dl −1.5 mg/dl mean [LDL] vs. baseline % change −10.68% −1.93% vs. baseline p-value <0.0001 0.5456 vs. baseline

TABLE 6 Changes in serum LDL particle concentration in ITT population following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 158 38 subjects Mean 1031.6 nmol/L 1004.8 nmol/L [LDL particle] Week 8 # of 129 33 subjects observed Change in  −73.6 nmol/L  +47.7 nmol/L mean [LDL particle] vs. baseline % change −7.13% +4.75% vs. baseline

TABLE 7 Changes in serum small LDL particle concentration in ITT population following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 158 38 subjects Mean 735.8 nmol/L 661.7 nmol/L [small LDL particle] Week 8 # of 129 33 subjects observed Change in −61.3 nmol/L +77.0 nmol/L mean [small LDL particle] vs. baseline % change −8.33% +11.64% vs. baseline

TABLE 8 Changes in serum total cholesterol concentration in ITT population following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 158 39 subjects Mean [total 156.8 mg/dl 156.9 mg/dl cholesterol] Week 8 # of 146 37 subjects observed Change in −12.8 mg/dl  −4.7 mg/dl mean [total cholesterol] vs. baseline % change −8.16% −2.99% vs. baseline p-value vs. <0.0001 0.1130 baseline

TABLE 9 Changes in serum TG concentration in ITT population following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 158 39 subjects Mean [TG] 151.5 mg/dl 150.6 mg/dl Week 8 # of 146 37 subjects observed Change in −10.1 mg/dl  −0.7 mg/dl mean [TG] vs. baseline % change −6.67% −0.46% vs. baseline

TABLE 10 Changes in serum sPLA₂ concentration in ITT population following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 159 41 subjects Median   2.30 ng/ml   2.20 ng/ml [sPLA₂] Week 8 # of 110 29 subjects observed Change in −2.00 ng/ml −0.30 ng/ml median [sPLA₂] vs. baseline % change −86.96% −13.64% vs. baseline p-value <0.0001 0.0207 vs. baseline

TABLE 11 Changes in serum CRP concentration in ITT population following A- 002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 155 38 subjects Median  1.50 mg/L  2.00 mg/L [CRP] Week 8 # of 143 36 subjects observed Change in −0.20 mg/L +0.10 mg/L median [CRP] vs. baseline % change −13.33% +5.00% vs. baseline p-value 0.0205 0.4478 vs. baseline

The median baseline LDL concentration in the 204 subject United States ITT population was 72.0 mg/dl. A-002 administration resulted in a significant decrease in mean LDL levels in a 97 subject subpopulation with baseline LDL levels equal to or higher than the median concentration (Table 12). In addition, administration of A-002 decreased mean serum LDL levels in a 53 subject subpopulation with diabetes (Table 13).

TABLE 12 Changes in serum LDL concentration in subpopulation with baseline serum LDL concentration greater than or equal to 72 mg/dl following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 79 18 subjects Mean 95.4 mg/dl 98.0 mg/dl [LDL] Week 8 # of 70 16 subjects Change in −14.0 mg/dl −3.5 mg/dl mean [LDL] vs. baseline % change −14.68% −3.57% vs. baseline p-value <0.0001 0.3428 vs. baseline

TABLE 13 Changes in serum LDL concentration in diabetic subpopulation following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 43 8 subjects Mean 63.7 mg/dl 75.1 mg/dl [LDL] Week 8 # of 37 8 subjects Change in −10.6 mg/dl −4.3 mg/dl mean [LDL] vs. baseline % change −16.64% −5.73% vs. baseline

A decrease in mean small LDL particle levels was observed in the subset of the US population that was receiving statin treatment during the trial (Table 14), indicating that administration of A-002 plus statin results in a greater decrease in small LDL particles than administration of statin alone. Likewise, a decrease in mean serum LDL levels was observed in an 81 subject subpopulation of the statin treatment group exhibiting elevated baseline LDL levels (i.e., baseline LDL levels greater than or equal to 72 mg/dl) (Table 15).

TABLE 14 Changes in serum small LDL particle concentration in statin subpopulation following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 139 33 subjects Mean 735.3 nmol/L 664.4 nmol/L [small LDL particle] Week 8 # of 114 27 subjects observed Change in −66.2 nmol/L +88.1 nmol/L mean [small LDL particle] vs. baseline % change −9.00% +13.26% vs. baseline

TABLE 15 Changes in serum LDL concentration in statin subpopulation with baseline serum LDL concentration greater than or equal to 72 mg/dl following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 66 15 subjects Mean 92.2 mg/dl 86.3 mg/dl [LDL] Week 8 # of 58 13 subjects Change in −15.0 mg/dl −3.8 mg/dl mean [LDL] vs. baseline % change −16.27% −4.40% vs. baseline p-value <0.0001 0.3792 vs. baseline

The combined effect of A-002 and statin administration on LDL levels was tested in a population of 332 subjects. This population consisted of the original 204 United States subjects, plus an additional 128 subjects from the Ukraine with stable CAD that received placebo or A-002 based according to the same protocol as the United States subjects. A decrease in mean serum LDL levels was observed in the statin subpopulation at four and eight weeks (Table 16), indicating that administration of A-002 and statin results in a greater decrease in serum LDL levels than administration of statin alone. Similarly, A-002 decreased LDL levels in subjects receiving a variety of non-statin compounds used in the treatment of CVD, including ezetimibe, AEGR-733/ezetimibe, colesevelam hydrochloride (WelChol®), MK-0524A (Cordaptive®), lisinopril/MC-1 antibody (MC-4232), and Angiotensin Receptor Blocker (ARB)/MC-1 (MC-4262).

TABLE 16 Changes in serum LDL concentration in statin subpopulation following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 156 36 subjects Mean 76.9 mg/dl 74.5 mg/dl [LDL] Week 4 # of 152 35 subjects Change in −10.8 mg/dl −2.5 mg/dl mean [LDL] vs. baseline % change −14.04% −3.36% vs. baseline Week 8 # of 131 31 subjects Change in −9.6 mg/dl −1.6 mg/dl mean [LDL] vs. baseline % change −12.48% −2.15% vs. baseline

Comparison of the above statin subpopulation results with results for subjects that were not receiving statin treatment indicates that administration of A-002 plus statin results in a greater decrease in mean serum small LDL particle and LDL levels than the expected additive effect of A-002 and statin (compare Table 17 to Table 14 and Table 18 to Table 16). In the United States population, mean serum small LDL particle levels were reduced at eight weeks by 9.00% in subjects administered A-002 plus statin (Table 14), versus a decrease of 3.25% in subjects administered A-002 alone (Table 17) and an increase of 13.26% in subjects administered statin alone (Table 14). These results summarized in Table 20. In the combined United States and Ukraine populations, mean serum LDL levels were decreased by 14.04% at week four in subjects administered A-002 plus statin (Table 16), versus a decrease of 6.93% in subjects administered A-002 alone (Table 18) and a decrease of 3.36% in subjects administered statin alone (Table 16). At week eight, mean serum LDL levels were decreased by 12.48% in subjects administered A-002 plus statin (Table 16), versus a decrease of 4.22% in subjects administered A-002 alone (Table 18) and a decrease of 2.15% in subjects administered statin alone (Table 16). These results are also summarized in Table 20. Therefore, administration of A-002 plus statin decreases LDL and small LDL particle levels in a synergistic manner.

This synergism was also observed in subjects from the United States population that had baseline LDL concentrations of 72 mg/dl or greater (compare Table 19 to Table 15). Mean serum LDL levels were decreased at eight weeks by 16.27% in subjects administered A-002 plus statin (Table 15), versus a decrease of 8.23% in subjects administered A-002 alone (Table 19) and a decrease of 4.40% in subjects administered statin alone (Table 15). These results are summarized in Table 20.

TABLE 17 Changes in serum small LDL particle concentration in non-statin subpopulation following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 19 5 subjects Mean 739.5 nmol/L 644.4 nmol/L [small LDL particle] Week 8 # of 15 6 subjects observed Change in −24.0 nmol/L +19.4 nmol/L mean [small LDL particle] vs. baseline % change −3.25% +3.01% vs. baseline

TABLE 18 Changes in serum LDL levels in non-statin subpopulation following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 102 21 subjects Mean 125.6 mg/dl  135.6 mg/dl  [LDL] Week 4 # of 86 22 subjects Change in −8.7 mg/dl +0.2 mg/dl mean [LDL] vs. baseline % change −6.93% +0.15% vs. baseline Week 8 # of 20 5 subjects Change in −5.3 mg/dl −1.3 mg/dl mean [LDL] vs. baseline % change −4.22% −0.96% vs. baseline

TABLE 19 Changes in serum LDL concentration in non-statin subpopulation with baseline serum LDL levels greater than or equal to 72 mg/dl following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 13 3 subjects Mean 111.8 mg/dl 156.3 mg/dl [LDL] Week 8 # of 12 3 subjects Change in  −9.2 mg/dl  −2.3 mg/dl mean [LDL] vs. baseline % change −8.23% −1.47% vs. baseline p-value 0.0574 0.8021 vs. baseline

TABLE 20 Summary of the synergistic effects of combined A-002 and statin administration versus administration of A-002 or statin alone Expected change from administration of A-002 plus Observed Observed Observed statin change change change (change for A- following following following 002 alone plus administration administration administration change for of A-002 plus of A-002 alone of statin alone statin alone) statin Mean serum −3.25% +13.26%  +10.01%  −9.00% [small LDL (Table 17) (Table 14) (−3.25% plus (Table 14) particle] at +13.26%) week 8 Mean serum −6.93% −3.36% −10.29% −14.04% [LDL] at week 4 (Table 18) (Table 16) (−6.93% plus (Table 16) −3.36%) Mean serum −4.22% −2.15    −6.37% −12.48   [LDL] at week 8 (Table 18) (Table 16) (−4.22% plus (Table 16) −2.15% Mean serum −8.23% −4.40% −12.63% −16.27% [LDL] in ≧72 mg/dl (Table 19) (Table 15) (−8.23% plus (Table 15) subpopulation −4.40%) at week 8

Serum LDL data for subjects in the statin subpopulation were subdivided based on the specific statin each subject was receiving. Statins with significant representation included atorvastatin, rosuvastatin, simvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, and fluvastatin, as well as the statin combination drugs simvastatin/ezetimibe (Vytorin®), atorvastatin/ezetimibe, atorvastatin/amlodipine (Caduet®), lovastatin/extended release niacin (Advicor®), rosuvastatin/TriCor®, rosuvastatin/ABT-335, simvastatin/extended release niacin (Simcor®), simvastatin/MK-0524A (MK-0524B), pravastatin/fenofibrate, atorvastatin/APA-01, and TAK-457/statin. Statin and statin combination dosages varied within each individual statin subgroup. The number of test and placebo subjects in each individual statin subgroup from the larger statin subpopulation was too low to allow for detailed statistical analysis. However, there appeared to be a trend towards the same synergistic decrease in LDL levels that was observed in the statin subpopulation as a whole in several of the statin subgroups, such as for example with certain dosages of atorvastatin, rosuvastatin, and simvastatin. These results indicate that the observed synergy between A-002 and statins is not limited to a particular statin.

The synergistic effect of A-002 and compounds used in the treatment of CVD on LDL levels was not limited to statins. For example, 30 subjects from the ITT population were receiving ezetimibe at a dosage of 10 mg during the course of the A-002 trial. Administration of A-002 resulted in a decrease in mean serum LDL levels in the ezetimibe subpopulation after eight weeks (Table 21), indicating that administration of A-002 plus ezetimibe results in a greater decrease in LDL levels than administration of ezetimibe alone (Table 21). As with the statin subpopulation, administration of A-002 in conjunction with ezetimibe resulted in a synergistic decrease in mean LDL levels that was greater than the expected additive effect of A-002 and ezetimibe (Table 22).

TABLE 21 Changes in serum LDL concentration in ezetimibe subpopulation following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 28 12 subjects Mean  81.0 mg/dl 79.6 mg/dl [LDL] Week 8 # of 28 12 subjects Change in −15.4 mg/dl −1.0 mg/dl mean [LDL] vs. baseline % change −17.8% −1.7% vs. baseline

TABLE 22 Summary of the synergistic effects of combined A-002 and ezetimibe administration versus administration of A-002 or ezetimibe alone Expected change from Observed administration Observed change Observed of A-002 plus change following change ezetimibe following adminis- following (change for A- adminis- tration administration 002 alone plus tration of of A-002 of ezetimibe change for A-002 plus alone alone ezetimibe) ezetimibe Mean serum −4.22% −1.7% −5.92% −17.8% [LDL] at (Table 18) (Table 21) (−4.22% plus (Table 21) week 8 −1.7%)

Serum TG, CRP, and IL-6 levels were measured at eight weeks in 86 subjects from the ITT population diagnosed with metabolic syndrome. Administration of A-002 resulted in a decrease in serum levels of each of these markers (Tables 23-25). Subjects administered placebo exhibited an increase in CRP and IL-6 levels (Tables 24-25).

TABLE 23 Changes in serum TG concentration in metabolic syndrome subpopulation following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 70 16 subjects Median 171.5 mg/dl 168.0 mg/dl [TG] Week 8 # of 63 13 subjects observed Change in −24.0 mg/dl  −3.0 mg/dl median [TG] vs. baseline % change −13.99% −1.79% vs. baseline

TABLE 24 Changes in serum CRP concentration in metabolic syndrome subpopulation following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 69 16 subjects Median 2.40 mg/L 2.60 mg/dl [CRP] Week 8 # of 62 13 subjects observed Change in −0.3 mg/L +0.1 mg/L median [CRP] vs. baseline % change −12.50% +3.84% vs. baseline

TABLE 25 Changes in serum IL-6 concentration in metabolic syndrome subpopulation following A-002 administration A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 68 16 subjects Mean [IL- 5.60 pg/ml 5.17 pg/ml 6] (15.30) (2.60) Week 8 # of 44 10 subjects observed Change in −0.24 pg/ml +0.29 pg/ml mean [IL- 6] vs. baseline % change −4.29% +5.61% vs. baseline

Example 5 A-002 Plus Statin Combination Tablet

Fixed dose tablets containing A-002 and one or more statins may be generated using methods known in the art. For example, a fixed dose tablet containing a therapeutically effective amount of A-002 (e.g., 250 or 500 mg) and a therapeutically effective amount of a statin (e.g., 10, 20, 40, or 80 mg), may be generated using a formula such as that set forth in Table 26. One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that additional components may be added to this generic formulation. For example, a compound such as calcium carbonate may be added to the formulation to enhance dissolution and solubility. Likewise, one of skill in the art will recognize that this formulation is just one example of a generic A-002/statin formulation, and that the identity and weight of the recited components within the formulation may be varied without undue experimentation.

TABLE 26 Generic A-002/statin formulation: Typical weight Component percentage A-002 Varies depending on desired dosage Statin Varies depending on desired dosage Anhydrous lactose 20-50% Lactose monohydrate 20-50% Hydroxypropyl cellulose 2-6% Croscarmellose sodium 0.5-5%   Polysorbate 80 0.1-3%   Microcrystalline cellulose  5-20% Magnesium stearate 0.25-3%  

To verify the feasibility of including both A-002 and a statin in a single formulation, fixed dose tablets containing 250 mg A-002 and 40 mg simvastatin (marketed as Zocor®) were generated. Unit and batch formulas for these tablets are set forth in Tables 27 and 28, respectively. All inactive ingredients were purchased from Spectrum Chemicals. Butylated hydroxyanisole was included in the formulation for consistency with the marketed form of simvastatin (Zocor®).

TABLE 27 Unit formula for A-002/simvastatin tablets: Component Function mg/tablet A-002 Active ingredient 250 Simvastatin Active ingredient 40 Anhydrous lactose Diluent 119.18 Lactose fast flo Diluent 59.58 Hydroxypropyl cellulose Binder 13.5 (HPC) Croscarmellose sodium Disintegrant 24.3 (divided into two equal portions for inner/extra granular Polysorbate 80 Surfactant 0.54 Butylated hydroxyanisole Antioxidant 0.01% (BHA) Microcrystalline cellulose Diluent 70.20 200 (MCC) Magnesium stearate Lubricant 2.70 Purified water Solvent — Total tablet weight 580 mg

TABLE 28 Batch formula for A-002/simvastatin tablets: Component Function g/batch A-002 Active ingredient 259 Simvastatin Active ingredient 41 Anhydrous lactose Diluent 123 Lactose fast flo Diluent 62 Hydroxypropyl cellulose Binder 14 (HPC) Croscarmellose sodium Disintegrant 6.6/8.4 (divided into two equal portions for inner/extra granular Polysorbate 80 Surfactant 1 Butylated hydroxanisole Antioxidant 0.1 (BHA) Microcrystalline cellulose Diluent 62 200 (MCC) Magnesium stearate Lubricant 2.5 Purified water Solvent 93 Batch size 673 g

A flow chart detailing one method of preparing the tablet above is set forth in FIG. 8. BHA, polysorbate 80, and purified water were mixed to create granulation fluid, which was stored overnight. Lactose anhydrous, lactose fast flo, and the first portion of croscarmellose sodium were weighed and screened through a coarse mesh, then combined with A-002 and simvastatin (which can also be sieved if necessary) and dry blended for 1-2 minutes using a mixer at slow speed. In certain embodiments of this protocol, microcrystalline cellulose may be included in the dry mix. Hydroxypropyl cellulose was combined with the granulation fluid, resulting in greatly increased viscosity. The resultant solution was added slowly to the mixer containing the A-002/simvastatin mix. During addition, mixing speed was gradually increased. Granulation end-point was reached when fine granules formed without the mass becoming wet or sticky.

The granulation was screened through coarse mesh onto foil lined trays and placed in an oven at 50° C. and ambient humidity for approximately three hours. After drying (and optional milling and/or sieving), granules were placed in a low-density polyethylene (LDPE) bag. Approximately one-fourth of the dried granules were pre-blended with microcrystalline cellulose and magnesium stearate in a small baggy, and then the remainder of the granules were combined with the pre-blend in a mixer. The second portion of croscarmellose sodium was added in, and the entire mixture was mixed for several minutes. Tablets were prepared by weighing approximately 580 mg of the final blend into a tablet press and compressing at 200-2500 psi (Carver press). The resultant tablets were weighed individually, and had an average weight of approximately 0.6 g. Tablets appeared off-white to light tan in color.

Two representative tablets (numbers 19 and 27) were analyzed by reverse phase HPLC. Tablets were placed in a stability chamber at 25° C./60% RH. Representative HPLC results for two of the tablets are set forth in FIG. 9 and summarized in Table 29. Tablets maintained high potency (i.e., high concentrations of A-002 and simvastatin), thereby validating the feasibility of generating A-002/statin combination tablets for the treatment of various conditions.

TABLE 29 HPLC analysis of A-002/simvastatin combination tablets: % A-002 % simvastatin Tablet # Weight (RT: 28.5 minutes) (RT: 44.5 minutes) 19 0.64 g 92% 89% 27 0.60 g 88% 86%

A film coating may be applied to combination A-002/statin tablets using methods well known in the art. In one such method, the coating suspension is prepared by adding a film coat mixture such as Opadry YS-1-18027-A to purified water in a mixing vessel. The mixing speed is reduced to avoid foaming and the suspension is mixed for 60 or more minutes, until uniform. After mixing, the suspension is allowed to stand for 60 or more minutes to deaerate. A coater such as the Accela Coater is set up and the theoretical amount of coating suspension to be sprayed is calculated based on the number and size of tablets being coated. Tablets are loaded onto the coating pan, and the nozzle air pressure (around 80-100 psi), atomizing air pressure (around 25-45 psi), pattern air pressure (around 20-40 psi), delivery rate (around 300-400 g/minute), pan speed (around 4-10 rpm), and dew point setting (around 5-15° C.) are verified. The fan is turned on, and gun-to-bed distance (around 6-10 inches), supply air temperature (around 58° C.), exhaust air temperature (around 45° C.), air volume inlet (around 1500 cfm), and negative pan pressure differential are verified. The tablets are pre-heated, and a sample number of tablets are weighed to determine the average core tablet weight. The coating solution is sprayed onto the tablets while being gently mixed. At various intervals of around 5-15 minutes, the average tablet weight is recalculated. Once target tablet weight is reached, the supply air temperature is reduced to around 45° C. and the pan is jogged at intervals for around five minutes to allow the tablets to dry. The supply air temperature is reduced to around 30° C. and tablets are jogged manually for around ten more minutes. The coated tablets are then discharged from the coating pan.

Example 6 Once a Day Dosing of A-002 or A-002 Plus Statin

135 human subjects over the age of 18 with CVD, specifically stable CAD, were randomized to receive either placebo or one of two dosages (250 mg or 500 mg) of A-002 via once a day oral administration over an eight week time period. 89 of the subjects received A-002, while 46 of the subjects received placebo. Subjects that were receiving statins or other compounds used in the treatment of CVD at the outset of the trial continued to receive those therapeutics throughout the trial. 121 of the 135 subjects were on statins during the trial. There was little variation between dosage groups with respect to age, height, weight, or BMI.

Levels of various lipids and inflammatory markers were measured at the outset of the trial and at weeks two, four, and/or eight weeks after the start of A-002 administration. In addition, plasma A-002 levels were measured at various intervals. Lipids that were measured included LDL, small LDL particle, oxidized LDL, non-HDL cholesterol, total cholesterol, ApoB, and triglycerides. In addition, levels of the inflammatory marker CRP were measured. Lipid and inflammatory marker levels at each timepoint were compared to the baseline measurements to determine the effect of A-002 administration. For data sets with a normal distribution, mean levels of lipids or inflammatory markers were analyzed. For data sets with non-normal distribution, median levels were analyzed. LDL particle size was also assessed.

Subjects in the ITT population receiving A-002 at either dosage exhibited substantial decreases at week eight in mean serum LDL, non-HDL cholesterol, and total cholesterol levels (Tables 30-32, respectively) and in median small LDL particle, oxidized LDL, TG, and ApoB levels (Tables 33-36). Subjects receiving A-002 also exhibited an increase in mean LDL particle size (Table 37). In addition, subjects receiving A-002 did not show the same increase in median CRP levels that was observed in subjects receiving placebo (Table 38).

TABLE 30 Changes in serum LDL concentration in ITT population following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 89 46 subjects Mean 75.4 mg/dl 82.0 mg/dl [LDL] Week 8 # of 81 43 subjects observed Change in −7.1 mg/dl −0.9 mg/dl mean [LDL] vs. baseline % change −8.3% −0.7% vs. baseline

TABLE 31 Changes in serum non-HDL cholesterol concentration in ITT population following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 89 46 subjects Mean [non- 105.9 mg/dl 112.5 mg/dl HDL cholesterol] Week 8 # of 81 43 subjects observed Change in −10.5 mg/dl  −2.1 mg/dl mean [non- HDL cholesterol] vs. baseline % change −9.9% −0.7% vs. baseline

TABLE 32 Changes in serum total cholesterol concentration in ITT population following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 89 46 subjects Mean [total 154.9 mg/dl 159.9 mg/dl cholesterol] Week 8 # of 81 43 subjects observed Change in −11.5 mg/dl  −3.1 mg/dl mean [total cholesterol] vs. baseline % change −7.3% −1.7% vs. baseline

TABLE 33 Changes in serum small LDL particle concentration in ITT population following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 89 46 subjects Median 759.0 nmol/L 782.0 nmol/L [small LDL particle] Week 8 # of 81 43 subjects observed Change in −74.0 nmol/L  +2.0 nmol/L median [small LDL particle] vs. baseline % change −9.1% +0.6% vs. baseline

TABLE 34 Changes in serum oxidized LDL concentration in ITT population following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 89 46 subjects Median 41.5 U/L 43.3 U/L [oxidized LDL] Week 8 # of 81 43 subjects observed Change in −1.4 U/L +0.3 U/L median [oxidized LDL] vs. baseline % change −3.6% +0.4% vs. baseline

TABLE 35 Changes in serum TG concentration in ITT population following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 88 45 subjects Median 137.5 mg/dl 135.0 mg/dl [TG] Week 8 # of 81 43 subjects observed Change in −13.0 mg/dl  +3.0 mg/dl median [TG] vs. baseline % change −9.8% +2.6% vs. baseline

TABLE 36 Changes in serum ApoB concentration in ITT population following A- 002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 89 46 subjects Median 68.6 mg/dl 62.8 mg/dl [ApoB] Week 8 # of 81 43 subjects observed Change in −8.1 mg/dl +2.5 mg/dl median [ApoB] vs. baseline % change −11.9% +3.5% vs. baseline

TABLE 37 Changes in LDL particle size in ITT population following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 89 46 subjects Mean LDL 20.50 nm 20.50 nm particle size Week 8 # of 81 43 subjects observed Change in +0.11 nm  0.00 nm mean LDL particle size vs. baseline % change +0.6% 0.0% vs. baseline

TABLE 38 Changes in serum CRP concentration in ITT population following A- 002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 89 46 subjects Median  1.10 mg/L  1.30 mg/L [CRP] Week 8 # of 81 43 subjects observed Change in +0.10 ng/ml +0.25 ng/ml median [CRP] vs. baseline % change +5.4% +25.4% vs. baseline

The decrease in mean serum LDL, non-HDL cholesterol, and total cholesterol levels and median small LDL particle, oxidized LDL, TG, and ApoB levels, the increase in mean LDL particle size, and the lower than expected increase in median CRP levels observed in the ITT population were also observed at eight weeks in the 121 subject subpopulation that was receiving statins during the trial (Tables 39-47, respectively), indicating that administration of A-002 plus statin results in a greater therapeutic effect on these markers than administration of statin alone. Likewise, a decrease in LDL, non-HDL cholesterol, total cholesterol, small LDL particle, oxidized LDL, and ApoB levels, an increase in LDL particle size, and a lower than expected increase in CRP levels were observed in 51 subjects within the statin subpopulation that had baseline LDL levels greater than 70 mg/dl (Tables 48-55). The number of subjects in the non-statin subpopulation was too low to allow for a detailed statistical analysis of the combined effect of A-002 and statins versus the effect of either compound alone. However, once additional non-statin controls are obtained, it is expected that a synergistic decrease in LDL levels similar to that observed following twice daily A-002 administration (Example 4) will be observed in subjects receiving A-002 once a day.

TABLE 39 Changes in serum LDL concentration in statin subpopulation following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 81 40 subjects Mean 70.5 mg/dl 75.5 mg/dl [LDL] Week 8 # of 75 37 subjects observed Change in −6.7 mg/dl −2.7 mg/dl mean [LDL] vs. baseline % change −8.2% −1.8% vs. baseline

TABLE 40 Changes in serum non-HDL cholesterol concentration in statin subpopulation following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 81 40 subjects Mean [non- 100.4 mg/dl 104.8 mg/dl HDL cholesterol] Week 8 # of 75 37 subjects observed Change in −10.1 mg/dl  −3.2 mg/dl mean [non- HDL cholesterol] vs. baseline % change −9.9% −1.3% vs. baseline

TABLE 41 Changes in serum total cholesterol concentration in statin subpopulation following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 81 40 subjects Mean [total 149.3 mg/dl 152.6 mg/dl cholesterol] Week 8 # of 75 37 subjects observed Change in −11.2 mg/dl  −4.4 mg/dl mean [total cholesterol] vs. baseline % change −7.3% −2.3% vs. baseline

TABLE 42 Changes in serum small LDL particle concentration in statin subpopulation following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 81 40 subjects Median 743.0 nmol/L 773.5 nmol/L [small LDL particle] Week 8 # of 75 37 subjects observed Change in −66.0 nmol/L  −6.5 nmol/L median [small LDL particle] vs. baseline % change −8.2% −1.0% vs. baseline

TABLE 43 Changes in serum oxidized LDL concentration in statin subpopulation following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 81 40 subjects Median 41.1 U/L 42.2 U/L [oxidized LDL] Week 8 # of 76 33 subjects observed Change in −1.1 U/L +0.3 U/L median [oxidized LDL] vs. baseline % change −2.9% +0.4% vs. baseline

TABLE 44 Changes in serum TG concentration in statin subpopulation following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 80 39 subjects Median 136.5 mg/dl 130.0 mg/dl [TG] Week 8 # of 75 37 subjects observed Change in −13.0 mg/dl  +3.0 mg/dl median [TG] vs. baseline % change −10.9% +2.6% vs. baseline

TABLE 45 Changes in serum ApoB concentration in statin subpopulation following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 81 40 subjects Median 66.1 mg/dl 58.2 mg/dl [ApoB] Week 8 # of 75 37 subjects observed Change in −7.9 mg/dl +2.5 mg/dl median [ApoB] vs. baseline % change −11.9% +3.5% vs. baseline

TABLE 46 Changes in LDL particle size in statin subpopulation following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 81 40 subjects Mean LDL 20.50 nm 20.48 nm particle size Week 8 # of 75 37 subjects observed Change in +0.10 nm −0.01 nm mean LDL particle size vs. baseline % change +0.5% 0.0% vs. baseline

TABLE 47 Changes in serum CRP concentration in statin subpopulation following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 81 40 subjects Median  1.10 mg/L  1.30 mg/L [CRP] Week 8 # of 75 37 subjects observed Change in +0.10 mg/L +0.30 mg/L median [CRP] vs. baseline % change +8.7% +40.6% vs. baseline

TABLE 48 Changes in serum LDL concentration in statin subpopulation with baseline serum LDL levels greater than 70 mg/dl following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 31 20 subjects Mean  91.6 mg/dl 93.2 mg/dl [LDL] Week 8 # of 30 18 subjects observed Change in −13.9 mg/dl −5.0 mg/dl mean [LDL] vs. baseline % change −15.0% −3.5% vs. baseline

TABLE 49 Changes in serum non-HDL cholesterol concentration in statin subpopulation with baseline serum LDL levels greater than 70 mg/dl following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 31 20 subjects Mean [non- 123.3 mg/dl 126.6 mg/dl HDL cholesterol] Week 8 # of 30 18 subjects observed Change in −16.7 mg/dl  −7.2 mg/dl mean [non- HDL cholesterol] vs. baseline % change −13.7% −4.1% vs. baseline

TABLE 50 Changes in serum total cholesterol concentration in statin subpopulation with baseline serum LDL levels greater than 70 mg/dl following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 31 20 subjects Mean [total 172.5 mg/dl 176.6 mg/dl cholesterol] Week 8 # of 30 18 subjects observed Change in −18.0 mg/dl  −8.6 mg/dl mean [total cholesterol] vs. baseline % change −10.5% −4.2% vs. baseline

TABLE 51 Changes in serum small LDL particle concentration in statin subpopulation with baseline serum LDL levels greater than 70 mg/dl following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 31 20 subjects Median  964.0 nmol/L 919.5 nmol/L [small LDL particle] Week 8 # of 30 18 subjects observed Change in −115.0 nmol/L −70.0 nmol/L median [small LDL particle] vs. baseline % change −12.3% −7.6% vs. baseline

TABLE 52 Changes in serum oxidized LDL concentration in statin subpopulation with baseline serum LDL levels greater than 70 mg/dl following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 31 20 subjects Median 47.9 U/L 51.6 U/L [oxidized LDL] Week 8 # of 76 33 subjects observed Change in −2.8 U/L +1.3 U/L median [oxidized LDL] vs. baseline % change −5.6% +2.5% vs. baseline

TABLE 53 Changes in serum ApoB concentration in statin subpopulation with baseline serum LDL levels greater than 70 mg/dl following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 31 20 subjects Median  84.6 mg/dl 71.9 mg/dl [ApoB] Week 8 # of 30 18 subjects observed Change in −13.1 mg/dl +1.1 mg/dl median [ApoB] vs. baseline % change −18.7% +2.1% vs. baseline

TABLE 54 Changes in LDL particle size in statin subpopulation with baseline serum LDL levels greater than 70 mg/dl following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 31 20 subjects Mean LDL 20.24 nm 20.62 nm particle size Week 8 # of 30 18 subjects observed Change in +0.19 nm +0.02 nm mean LDL particle size vs. baseline % change +1.0% +0.1% vs. baseline

TABLE 55 Changes in serum CRP concentration in statin subpopulation with baseline serum LDL levels greater than 70 mg/dl following A-002 administration: A-002 Placebo Baseline # of 31 20 subjects Median  1.10 mg/L  1.30 mg/L [CRP] Week 8 # of 30 18 subjects observed Change in +0.10 mg/L +0.45 mg/L median [CRP] vs. baseline % change +9.1% +26.0% vs. baseline

As stated above, the foregoing is merely intended to illustrate various embodiments of the present invention. The specific modifications discussed above are not to be construed as limitations on the scope of the invention. It will be apparent to one skilled in the art that various equivalents, changes, and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the invention, and it is understood that such equivalent embodiments are to be included herein. All references cited herein are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.

REFERENCES

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1-38. (canceled)
 39. A method of treating cardiovascular disease in a subject in need thereof comprising administering to said subject a therapeutically effective amount of ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof and a statin.
 40. The method of claim 39, wherein said prodrug derivative is [[3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl]oxy]acetic acid methyl ester.
 41. The method of claim 39, wherein said statin is selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, lovastatin, mevastatin, pitavastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin, simvastatin, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, stereoisomers, or prodrug derivatives thereof.
 42. The method of claim 39, further comprising administering one or more compounds selected from the group consisting of ezetimibe, amlodipine, CP-529414, APA-01, extended release niacin, MK-0524A, fenofibrate, and TAK-457.
 43. The method of claim 39, wherein said cardiovascular disease is selected from the group consisting of atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, coronary heart disease, conditions associated with coronary artery disease or coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, conditions associated with cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, conditions associated with peripheral vascular disease, aneurysm, vasculitis, venous thrombosis, diabetes mellitus, and metabolic syndrome.
 44. The method of claim 43, wherein said cardiovascular disease is selected from the group consisting of atherosclerosis, angina, myocardial infarction, transient ischemic attack, and stroke.
 45. The method of claim 39, wherein ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof and a statin are administered simultaneously.
 46. The method of claim 45, wherein ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof and a statin are administered in the same composition.
 47. The method of claim 39, wherein ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof and a statin are administered sequentially.
 48. The method of claim 39, wherein ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof is administered once per day.
 49. The method of claim 39, wherein ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof is administered two or more times per day.
 50. The method of claim 39, wherein administration of ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof in combination with a statin results in a decrease in LDL levels.
 51. The method of claim 50, wherein the decrease in LDL levels resulting from administration of ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof in combination with a statin is greater than the expected additive effect of administering ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof and a statin separately.
 52. The method of claim 50, wherein ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof and a statin reduce LDL levels in a synergistic manner.
 53. The method of claim 39, wherein administration of ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof in combination with a statin results in a decrease in small LDL particle levels.
 54. The method of claim 53, wherein the decrease in small LDL particle levels resulting from administration of ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof in combination with a statin is greater than the expected additive effect of administering ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof and a statin separately.
 55. The method of claim 53, wherein ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof and a statin reduce small LDL particle levels in a synergistic manner.
 56. The method of claim 39, wherein administration of ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof in combination with a statin results in a decrease in atherosclerotic plaque formation.
 57. The method of claim 56, wherein the decrease in atherosclerotic plaque formation resulting from administration of ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof in combination with a statin is greater than the expected additive effect of administering ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof and a statin separately.
 58. The method of claim 56, wherein ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof and a statin reduce atherosclerotic plaque formation in a synergistic manner.
 59. The method of claim 39, wherein said subject has been diagnosed with CVD or exhibits one or more symptoms associated with CVD.
 60. The method of claim 39, wherein ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof is administered as a pharmaceutical composition comprising ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, polymorph, co-crystal, solvate, or prodrug derivative thereof and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers.
 61. The method of claim 39, wherein the statin is administered as a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of the statin and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers.
 62. A method of treating cardiovascular disease in a subject in need thereof comprising administering to said subject a therapeutically effective amount of ((3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl)oxy)acetic acid or a prodrug derivative thereof and a statin, wherein said cardiovascular disease is selected from the group consisting of atherosclerosis, angina, myocardial infarction, transient ischemic attack, and stroke.
 63. The method of claim 62, wherein said prodrug derivative is [[3-(2-Amino-1,2-dioxoethyl)-2-ethyl-1-(phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl]oxy]acetic acid methyl ester.
 64. The method of claim 62, wherein said statin is selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, lovastatin, mevastatin, pitavastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin , simvastatin, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, stereoisomers, or prodrug derivatives thereof. 